During the past year, the US
Food and Drug Administration
approved for use in cancer
treatment both a small-molecule
inhibitor (gefitinib, ZD1839, Iressa)
of the epidermal growth factor receptor
(EGFR) and a monoclonal antibody
directed against its extracellular
domain (cetuximab, C225, Erbitux). Gefitinib(Drug information on gefitinib) was approved as a single
agent for the treatment of lung cancer,
with sustained responses observed
in slightly more than 10% of all patients
with non-small-cell lung cancer
enrolled in those trials. Such
responses may be especially dramatic
in a recently identified subset with
gain-of-function somatic mutations in
the tyrosine kinase (TK) domain of
the EGFR gene.[1] Cetuximab(Drug information on cetuximab) showed
clear activity against colorectal cancer
that was resistant to irinotecan(Drug information on irinotecan)
(Camptosar), particularly when given
together in combination with irinotecan.
Three years earlier, an antibody
directed against another member of
the EGFR family, trastuzumab(Drug information on trastuzumab) (Herceptin),
was approved for the treatment
of metastatic breast cancer
characterized by the overamplification
of the erbB2 (HER2/neu) gene.
These developments, arriving nearly
30 years after the isolation and delineation
of the biologic properties of
the human epidermal growth factor
by Stanley Cohen and his group,[2]
are an affirmation of the importance
of such growth factors and receptors
in ensuring proliferation and survival
of epithelial neoplasms. From the outset,
studies of small-molecule inhibitors
focused on cancers of the lung
and the aerodigestive tract, whereas
the antibodies underwent preferential
development against colorectal cancer,
and to a lesser extent against cancers
of head and neck origin. Excellent
reviews on the background and clinical
experience with these agents have
been published.[3-5] Although there
has been persistent interest and often
some hints of activity in tumors arising
from gynecologic organs, the development
of therapeutic strategies
using these agents against gynecologic
cancers has lagged behind those of
the above noted sites.
In order to stimulate interest and
provide a road map for further clinical
development in this area, we review
here the rationale and possible
role of such agents in the treatment of
ovarian cancer, the variety of trials
that are ongoing (including an overview
of the rationale for our own trial
with erlotinib [OSI-774, Tarceva] added
to first-line chemotherapy), and
the types of compounds being tested.
Finally, we shall consider future directions
for these agents in the treatment
of ovarian cancer.
Ovarian Cancer
Treatment Overview
Currently, platinum-based chemotherapy
is effective as induction therapy
for ovarian cancer, with only 1 of
10 patients relapsing during treatment.
However, the majority of patients,
such as those who present with disease
stages IIIC and IV, will relapse
soon after cessation of the induction
regimen. A study by Markman[6]
clearly showed that the median time
to relapse, even for patients deemed
to be in clinical complete response, is
only 21 months in patients assigned
to receive three more doses of paclitaxel(Drug information on paclitaxel),
and 29 months for those that
had 1 year of maintenance treatment
with paclitaxel administered every
4 weeks. Prior studies have suggested
that the progression-free survival is
only about 16 months if patients had
suboptimal debulking, and about
24 months for optimally debulked
stage III patients.
It is important, therefore, to look at
ways to improve the efficacy of induction,
and it is also a major unmet
need to find drugs that prolong the
duration of first remission. Despite
the existence of several second-line
drugs that induce responses in patients
who experience recurrence, a trial of
consolidation with intraperitoneal (IP) cisplatin(Drug information on cisplatin) was closed early short of its
accrual goals with only a trend for
fewer recurrences,[7] while either an
IP radioimmunoconjugate[8] or continued
treatment with four cycles of
topotecan (Hycamtin) or epirubicin
(Ellence) has not resulted in an improved
outcome compared to observation.[
9-11] Altretamine(Drug information on altretamine) (Hexalen)
consolidation for 1 year has been used
only in a trial without a control.[12]
Until the recent demonstration that
the combination of paclitaxel and carboplatin(Drug information on carboplatin)
led to improved survival
when used as second-line therapy and
compared to carboplatin by itself,[13]
these second-line drugs had an uncertain
effect on survival. Another exception
that has emerged relates to a
recent trial of topotecan(Drug information on topotecan) vs pegylated
liposomal doxorubicin(Drug information on doxorubicin) (Doxil), where
an update showed a survival advantage
with the latter agent in a patient
population that included both platinum-
sensitive and platinum-resistant
patients.[14] In platinum-resistant
patients (those relapsing within
6 months of completing the platinumbased
induction), all these secondline
drugs are generally less active,
and chronic maintenance is likely to
be desirable.[15]
Noncytotoxic drugs have been considered
an excellent choice for consolidation
therapies because one
would not expect long-term toxicity
issues. Tamoxifen(Drug information on tamoxifen) has often been used,
but only recently has a randomized
study been initiated by the Gynecologic
Oncology Group (GOG). Inhibitors
of EGFR are among the potential
candidates for use in consolidation,
but such studies await experience
against established disease and more
extensive delineation of the role of
EGFR in ovarian cancer. In first-line
treatment, one might also consider
whether modulation with a "targeted
compound" might enhance the results
of chemotherapy. Presently, the GOG
is planning to evaluate the effect of an
antibody to the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) bevacizumab(Drug information on bevacizumab)
(Avastin) when added to paclitaxel
and carboplatin vs chemotherapy
alone in a future phase III study. EGFR
inhibitors will have to wait for another
generation of first-line trials and additional
data before upfront phase III
studies can be designed.
EGFR and Ovarian Cancer
Gonadotropic and steroid hormones
have been implicated in ovarian
tumorigenesis,[16] and-as in other
tumor types-coexist to a variable
degree with EGFR-mediated signaling.
In fact, hormone receptors, as
well as EGFR and HER2/neu are overexpressed
in a significant percentage
of epithelial ovarian cancers.[17-21]
Moreover, coexpression of both erbB1
and erbB2 (HER2/neu) is common in
ovarian cancer.[22-23]
In preclinical studies, antisense
suppression of EGFR affects proliferation
and tumorigenicity of ovarian
cancer cells [24-25]. More recently,
an emerging relationship between
MUC genes and expression of EGFR
has been described. Such a relationship
has generated some interest, and
further, has been deemed worth pursuing
against mucinous histologies.
In general, mucinous tumors of ovarian
origin tend to have an inferior
chemosensitivity relative to the more
common papillary serous histologies.
Other histologies such as endometrioid
and clear cell also reflect differences
in biologic behavior and in gene
expression.[16]
Mucins, produced by MUC genes,
are complex proteins elaborated by
many cell types, including those of
the gastrointestinal and respiratory
tracts, to maintain cellular homeostasis
in harsh environments. Mucins have
been implicated in the pathogenesis
of many cancers, and are often expressed
in large concentrations and in
different forms than their benign counterparts.
Cancer cells use mucins in
much the same way as normal epithelia-
for protection from adverse
growth conditions and to control the
local molecular microenvironment
during invasion (by simultaneously
disrupting existing interactions between
opposing cells) and metastasis (by establishing new ligands for interaction
between the invading cell
and the adjoining cells).[26]
Many mucins contain domains homologous
to those of the epidermal
growth factor (EGF) family, through
which mucins (and the cells that elaborate
them) directly interact with
EGFRs.[26] Mucins contribute to the
regulation of differentiation and proliferation
of tumor cells, through
ligand-receptor interactions (for example,
between MUC4 and EGFR2
[HER2/neu]) and signal transduction.[
26] Through these interactions,
malignant cells can initiate signaling
cascades to induce growth and differentiation.
In some instances, the EGF
domains on mucins may act on EGFRs
of the same cell, in an autocrine fashion.
For example, MUC4 mucin is
aberrantly expressed in premalignant
pancreas cells. The EGF-like motif
on MUC4 has been shown to make
autologous receptor-ligand interaction
with EGFR2, inducing a signaling
cascade that allows the cells to sustain
differentiation and survival.[26]
MUC2 and MUC5AC are two target
genes of EGFR ligands; upregulation
occurs via concomitant activation of
the EGFR/Ras/Raf pathway.[27]
Mucinous tumors, whether of gynecologic,
gastrointestinal, or other
intra-abdominal origin, tend to have
worse outcomes after platinum-based
chemotherapy.[28-30] These tumors
have a distinct biology: They are prone
to massive growth and extensive peritoneal
infiltration, have a propensity
for metastasizing via the peritoneal
route rather than the hematogenous
route, and tend to persist even after
surgery and chemotherapy.[31]
EGFR Inhibitors: Phase I/II
Experience in Ovarian Cancer
The following EGFR inhibitors are
undergoing testing in ovarian cancer
patients:
- Trastuzumab-This humanized monoclonal antibody directed toward the extracellular domain of HER2/neu has undergone formal testing in one trial in ovarian cancer conducted by the GOG. It initially generated great interest but ultimately yielded disappointing results: Not only was overexpression overexpression of HER2/neu in the disease considerably less frequent than initial estimates of 20% to 40%, but the antibody given as a single agent yielded very few responses.[32] Some evidence indicates that the incidence of HER2/neu overexpression increases during the course of ovarian cancer and is most common in patients who relapse with ascites.[33]
- Pertuzumab (Omnitarg, 2C4)- The effect of this humanized monoclonal antibody is to inhibit the dimerization of erbB1 and erbB2- thus, its effect may not be dependent on HER2/neu amplification.[34] In phase I/pharmacologic studies, one patient with ovarian cancer experienced an objective response lasting 9 months. Phase II trials sponsored by Genentech have been initiated in ovarian cancers that do not overexpress HER2/neu.
- Anti-EGFR Antibodies-Trials of anti-EGFR antibodies have also been initiated but not yet published. These include trials with the chimeric monoclonal antibody cetuximab, the humanized monoclonal antibody EMD72000, and the fully humanized monoclonal antibody ABX-EGF. In phase I studies of these agents, patients with ovarian cancer were enrolled and anecdotally some responses were noted, thus encouraging phase II studies. The GOG recently embarked on a phase II study of cetuximab on their "biologic" phase II queue. An EMD72000 sponsored phase II trial in ovarian cancer has been completed but not yet reported.
- Gefitinib-This agent is a quinazoline derivative that competes with adenosine(Drug information on adenosine) triphosphate (ATP) in the binding pocket of its intracellular catalytic domain and thereby prevents phosphorylation and activation of EGFR TK activity. In a dose-escalation phase I and pharmacodynamic study,[35] 23 of 88 patients enrolled had ovarian cancer, but only one of the patients (receiving 300 mg/d) was still receiving treatment after 6 months. Grade 3/4 toxicities were experienced by five patients- three at 1,000 mg/d, and one each at 400 and 600 mg/d. Of note, EGFR signaling is a vital growth regulator in estrogen receptor (ER)-positive acquired tamoxifen-resistant breast cancer models, and preliminary studies showed that in ER-positive patients with breast cancer, high levels of HER2 did not preclude a response to gefitinib.[36] The GOG initiated a trial in ovarian cancer with this small-molecule inhibitor in patients who had failed other therapies within a separate queue of previously treated patients (any number of prior treatments but good performance status). The GOG investigators established new end points in order to identify activity beyond objective antitumor effects depending on Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors (RECIST) standards. A drug would be deemed to have encouraging activity if the percentage of patients not progressing at 6 months exceeded 30%. Although some evidence of antitumor effect was documented with gefitinib, it was not sufficient to support further study with the drug in patients with ovarian cancer. In other studies, however, gefitinib plus combination chemotherapy as second-line treatment for ovarian cancer demonstrated favorable response rates. A French phase II study involved the administration of gefitinib combined with paclitaxel and carboplatin as second-line therapy, with a resultant overall response rate of 25% in platinum-resistant patients and 71% in platinum-sensitive patients.[37] A German phase II study that evaluated gefitinib in combination with tamoxifen in platinum/taxane-refractory ovarian cancer patients demonstrated a 2.1% complete response rate, a 19.1% stable disease rate, and a 6-month survival rate of 56.6%.[38] A Greek phase I/II trial using gefitinib in combination with vinorelbine (Navelbine) and oxaliplatin(Drug information on oxaliplatin) (Eloxatin) as salvage treatment for advanced ovarian cancer resulted in three complete responses and two partial responses in the cisplatin-refractory group, and four complete responses and five partial responses in the cisplatin- sensitive group.[39]
- Erlotinib-Also a quinazoline, erlotinib has a similar mechanism of action to that of gefitinib. In phase I trials, responses were seen in several diagnostic categories, including patients with ovarian cancer. Accordingly, a trial was initiated by OSI Pharmaceuticals and published in abstract form[40]: 3 of 34 patients were noted to have partial responses after 150-mg/d treatment, with stable disease also noted in 3 others at 5, 5, and 6 months. Under sponsorship by the National Cancer Institute, this agent will undergo additional studies in combination with chemotherapies. Interestingly, a recent translational study conducted in metastatic breast cancer patients who were treated with erlotinib demonstrated gene expression profile changes in a wide array of genes both in EGFR-positive and EGFR-negative tumors, suggesting that erlotinib has additional targets.[ 41] As discussed in the next section, our institution has been using this drug in combination with carboplatin and paclitaxel in the first-line setting for ovarian cancer. Currently, a European collaborative has demonstrated antitumor activity in a phase I study involving the administration of erlotinib in combination with docetaxel(Drug information on docetaxel) and carboplatin as first-line treatment for ovarian cancer.[42] A Canadian study of EGFR-overexpressing recurrent or metastatic endometrial cancer using erlotinib as a single agent has resulted in one partial response and three cases of stable disease, with tolerable toxicities.[43]
- PKI 166-This pyrrolopyrimidine compound also competes with the ATP binding site on EGFR TK in the nanomolar range, and at somewhat higher concentrations inhibits the autophosphorylation of HER2/neu, making it a dual inhibitor.[44] Three phase I studies have been performed with reversible transaminitis, diarrhea, and rash being dose limiting.
- Lapitinib (GW572016)-This compound is in development because of its ability to inhibit kinase activity, including that of erbB1, erbB2, ERK1, ERK2, and AKT, in the nanomolar range.[45] In phase I trials, the toxicities were not unlike those described above for PKI 166.[46-47]
- EKB569 and CI-1033-Both these drugs are irreversible inhibitors of erbB1 and erbB2, with a similar spectrum of toxicities as drugs described earlier, but their long-lasting effect on the receptors have led to more cautious and therefore more prolonged study in phase I. A phase I study of EKB569 has been conducted,[ 48] with diarrhea and rash as the most frequently reported adverse events. CI-1033 demonstrated some antitumor activity in patients with ovarian cancer,[49] and a formal phase II study enrolling 100 patients at three different dose levels has been carried out. The patient population was heavily pretreated, but some activity was observed, while tolerance varied with dose level; publication is awaited.[50]
- E1a-In addition to the above agents, E1a, a gene product of adenovirus type 5, has been found to downregulate HER2/neu and cause tumor regression in animal models. This occurs because the HER2/neu promoter has several positive elements that require the p300/CREB-binding protein coactivator proteins, which are inhibited by direct E1a interaction.[51] A recently completed phase I gene therapy clinical trial involving intraperitoneal delivery of E1A-lipid complex to patients with recurrent ovarian cancer overexpressing HER2/neu demonstrated safety and gene transfer but no evidence of efficacy.[52]
-
Summary-This initial experience
has provided the rationale for further
exploration utilizing the strategies listed
below:
(1) Phase II studies of monoclonal antibodies directed against EGFR alone and in combination with cytotoxic drugs, as well as with other "targeted drugs" such as the antibody targeting VEGF, bevacizumab.
(2) Phase II studies of TK paninhibitors of EGFR and HER2: Again, these have been performed or are ongoing and planned with agents that have a wider range of inhibition than geftinib and erlotinib, such as CI-1033 and GW572061.
(3) Integration of erlotinib into firstline chemotherapy: understanding the possible potentiation of chemotherapy by this drug, and studying the contribution of maintenance therapy.
Preclinical findings have suggested that interfering with EGFR signaling enhances the cytotoxic action of certain chemotherapeutic agents, and in particular, the platinum compounds. Evidence of this enhancement against cell lines and animal tumors provided the rationale for the first combination studies with trastuzumab in breast cancer.[ 53-55] Of all the chemotherapeutic drugs, however, enhancement of platinum-induced cytotoxicity is most prominent.[56-59] In spite of this preclinical rationale, the trials of combined chemotherapy and TK inhibitors in non-small-cell lung cancer were negative.[60-61] New information suggests that patients with receptor accumulating gain-of-function mutations in the TK domain of EGFR are most susceptible to TK inhibitors such as gefitinib.[1] Otherwise, these drugs have shown limited efficacy against other non-small-cell lung cancers despite EGFR expression. Nevertheless, the relevance of such findings to other cancers is currently unknown. The rationale for the study of erlotinib added to first-line therapy of ovarian cancer (Figure 1) includes the following: (1) activity in preclinical and clinical studies noted in the preceding sections; (2) the fact that compared with lung cancer, ovarian cancer tissue is more often available after therapeutic intervention-therefore, samples obtained at reassessment may prove informative as to the nature of cells surviving treatment with chemotherapy and EGFR inhibition; and (3) the need for exploring better induction regimens and also maintenance therapy as initial treatment of advanced ovarian cancer. Accordingly, our trial was begun under sponsorship of the National Cancer Institute and has accrued 18 patients with stage III/IV ovarian cancer during its first year. All tumor specimens have had baseline determinations of EGFR and phosphorylated EGFR by immunohistochemistry. Patients proceeding to second-look laparotomy with disease presence are having repeat determinations and tissue frozen for additional determinations to verify the status of downstream signal transduction pathways.
Future Directions
Several issues need to be considered
in the future use of these drugs,
in relation to our growing appreciation
for the biology of ovarian cancer.
Future studies must take into account
the following aspects of treatment:
(1) Integration with other molecular-
targeted therapies. Studies particularly
conducted in breast cancer
patients, but perhaps also reasonable
in ovarian cancer, are seeking synergy
of these drugs with hormonally
directed agents such as tamoxifen. It
has been suggested that an increase in
growth factor and cellular kinase signaling
in breast tumors potentiates the
ER pathway, which in turn reactivates
growth factor signaling via both genomic
and nongenomic activities, resulting
in a stimulatory cycle that
intensifies activity in the ER and
EGFR pathways.[62]
There is growing evidence that in
breast cancer there is "cross-talk" between estrogen receptors and the EGFR
family. In preclinical models of breast
cancer, both EGFR and c-erbB2 mRNA
and protein expression were increased
in tamoxifen-resistant compared with
wild-type MCF-7 cells. Phosphorylated
EGFR/c-erbB2, EGFR/c-erbB3
were detected in tamoxifen-resistant
cells in association with increased levels
of phosphorylated extracellular-signal
regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2);
treatment of tamoxifen-resistant cells
with gefitinib or trastuzumab blocked
c-erbB receptor heterodimer formation
and phosphorylation, reduced ERK1/2
activity, and strongly inhibited cell
growth.[63]
Other preclinical breast cancer models
also suggest that tamoxifen's agonist
effects are mediated by EGFR/
HER2, and that using growth factor
pathway inhibitors might improve
tamoxifen's benefit by eliminating its
agonist effect.[64] As is being done in
colorectal cancer, the GOG is planning
to explore double targeting of angiogenesis
(with bevacizumab) and EGFR
(with cetuximab). Phase I studies of
ACA-125 are under way. This murine
anti-idiotypic monoclonal antibody that
mimics CA-125 has, so far, been well
tolerated and has induced appreciable
Ab3 responses in ovarian cancer.[65]
Additional combinations await both
preclinical and clinical leads.
(2) Integration with conventional
anticancer therapies. Our study is exploring
leads for the use of erlotinib in
first-line treatment. We hope from this
experience to also obtain a preliminary
indication of whether it is reasonable to
test this agent in consolidation chemotherapy.
In addition, we seek to obtain
some indication of antitumor effects
associated with erlotinib-related toxic
events such as rash.
(3) Study of pharmacodynamics
and validation of the target. In the
future, it is likely that one will be able
to obtain a molecular characterization
of the various histologic cell types. It
is important to delineate the role of
EGFR pathways for each category.
Indications that clear cell, mucinous
tumors and endometrioid tumors are distinct from serous tumors in many
molecular aspects suggest that this is
fertile ground for future clinical and
translational investigations.
