Borderline personality disorder is thought to occur in 1% to 2% of the general population, although there have only been a few large-scale, population-based epidemiological studies that included BPD and utilized structured interview methodology. In a careful analysis of the limited literature on the topic, Torgersen (in press) tabulated the prevalence of BPD in eight published studies, including his own Norwegian study (Torgersen, 2000). Across all eight studies, the median prevalence for BPD in the population was 1.42%, and the mean was 1.16%. The prevalence of BPD was estimated to be 10% to 20% in psychiatric outpatient populations and 15% to 20% in psychiatric inpatient populations (Gunderson, 2001).

Extensive comorbidity has been documented for BPD with other Axis II disorders (Oldham et al., 1992), as well as with Axis I disorders (Gunderson, 2001; Skodol et al., 2002a). Prominent among Axis I/BPD patterns of comorbidity are BPD and mood disorders (Skodol et al., 1999b), anxiety disorders (Skodol et al., 1995) and substance use disorders (Grant et al., 2004; Skodol et al., 1999a). The presence of comorbidity is reported to complicate the patient's treatment response (Skodol et al., 2002a). Evidence is persuasive that patients with BPD frequently have high levels of disability (Skodol et al., 2002a) and are high treatment utilizers (Bender et al., 2001).

All personality disorders, according to DSM-IV-TR, have their onset in adolescence or early adulthood and show an enduring pattern of dysfunction that is stable and of long duration. New data, however, are challenging this view of the stability of the personality disorders over time, and this is clearly the case for BPD (Grilo and McGlanish, in press). The multisite Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study, funded by the National Institute of Mental Health, is a naturalistic study involving careful standardized sequential assessments over time. Recent data indicate that substantial percentages of patients who met semi-structured interview-based DSM-IV diagnosis of BPD at intake did not sustain that diagnosis at 24 months post-intake. Defining remission as two consecutive months during which no more than two BPD diagnostic criteria remain present, 42% of patients with BPD had remitted; if remission is defined as showing no more than two criteria for 12 consecutive months, the BPD remission rate was 28% (Grilo et al., in press). Clearly, then, the diagnosis of BPD is more variable over time than the DSM-IV generic criterion of longitudinal stability would imply. Other studies have shown similar results (Lenzenweger, 1999; Zanarini et al., 2003).

Treatment

 

The evidence-based American Psychiatric Association practice guideline for the treatment of patients with BPD recommends psychotherapy as the primary treatment for BPD, combined with symptom-targeted adjunctive pharmacotherapy (Oldham et al., 2001). These recommendations were made with substantial clinical confidence, based on published randomized controlled trials of both psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy, as well as clinical consensus. The APA practice guideline does not recommend a specific type of psychotherapy, but cites two types of psychotherapy that have been demonstrated to be beneficial, using a randomized controlled design: dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) (Linehan et al., 1999, 1994, 1991) and psychodynamic psychotherapy (Bateman and Fonagy, 2001, 1999). Dialectical behavior therapy involves manual-based weekly outpatient individual psychotherapy, weekly group skills training and a number of other components (Linehan, 1993). The Bateman and Fonagy (2001) psychodynamic psychotherapy study also involved weekly individual and group sessions, in this case combined with other treatment activities in a partial hospital setting. Neither treatment is a quick fix; the DBT results were based on one year of treatment and showed reduced self-injurious behavior, greater treatment adherence and improved interviewer-rated social adjustment. The psychodynamic psychotherapy results followed 18 months of treatment and showed reduced self-injurious behavior, anxiety and depression. In both cases, follow-up studies reported maintenance of gains for at least one year (Bateman and Fonagy, 2001; Linehan, 1993). Subsequent to the publication of the APA practice guideline, there have been additional reports of controlled psychotherapy trials that also appear promising (Bohus et al., 2004; Clarkin and Levy, 2003; Linehan et al., 2002; Verheul et al., 2003).

In addition to psychotherapy, the APA practice guideline recommends symptom-targeted pharmacotherapy. In a review of the literature on pharmacotherapy for BPD, studies were categorized into randomized controlled trials, open-label trials and clinical reports (Soloff, 2000; Soloff, in press). Based on clinical judgment derived from a synthesis of the evidence, three algorithms were included in the APA guideline reflecting prominence of cognitive/perceptual symptoms, affective dysregulation symptoms or impulsive-behavioral dyscontrol symptoms (Oldham et al., 2001).

Summary

 

Borderline personality disorder is a disabling, complex, heterogeneous disorder characterized by variable combinations of impulsive self-injurious behavior, affective instability, cognitive/perceptual symptoms, interpersonal difficulties and other symptoms. Great strides have been made in understanding the etiologies, neurobiology and longitudinal course of BPD. An evidence-based practice guideline has been developed for the disorder, and a growing number of studies demonstrate that carefully planned and administered treatment can be effective for many patients with BPD.
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