Dawn I. Velligan, PhD

To view the 2016 article in PDF format, click here.

Slideshows

Negative symptoms identified from the Negative Symptom Assessment and the behaviors that might be observed in each of 5 domains.

5 Domains of Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia

This summary is based on Dr. Velligan’s presentation at the 2017 Psychiatric Congress on Saturday, September 16, at 9 am.

In the past several decades, clinical care has moved from a traditional provider-driven paternalistic model to one that values shared decision-making (SDM). SDM is a process in which both the provider and the patient are involved. The provider shares information about the alternatives, risks, and benefits of specific treatments and elicits input from the patient; the patient shares information about his or her preferences, values, and concerns and ask questions; and both parties work toward an agreement on the treatment to be implemented.

A focus on understanding preferences and values of the patient is particularly central to treatment outcomes in situations in which there is no clear “best” treatment and there are many choices with variable adverse-effect profiles. This is clearly the case in many areas of medical treatment including various cancers, diabetes, and psychiatric conditions.

 The Institute of Medicine calls for individuals’ values and preferences to guide all physical and mental health care.

Empirical evidence indicates that involving patients in the treatment decision-making process leads to increased satisfaction with treatment, lower decision conflict arising from being better informed, better follow-through on treatment recommendations, and even improved outcomes for medical markers such as blood pressure and blood glucose.

Despite its promise, it has been a slow process for SDM to be accepted in the mental health field relative to other areas of medicine. Provider-dominated decision-making characterizes many psychiatric consultations. This may reflect provider concerns about the effects of mental illness on patients’ ability to participate in SDM. Many individuals with serious mental illness suffer from cognitive impairments that may hinder their ability for complex cognitive processing. Moreover, some psychiatric conditions specifically affect judgment and decision-making. However, contradicting these apparent risks, many adults with serious mental illness frequently make competent and prudent treatment decisions.

To further complicate the picture, decision-making for doctors and patients is subject to multiple biases. Prescribers have biases based on habit (comfort or lack of comfort with a specific option) and perceived risk aversion. Patients as human beings are subject to appraisal biases including ignoring information that does not fit into preconceived ideas, giving more weight to negative information, and being affected by the context in which information is presented.1 Despite these pitfalls, patients routinely report wanting to be involved in decisions about their treatment.

Many providers believe they are engaging in SDM, but 6 out of 10 patients don’t feel listened to during appointments.

 Doctors are often missing the profound impact on the patient of the power differential. The patient is in the doctor’s office, on the doctor’s schedule. He or she is told when to enter and leave. If the patient is more than 15 minutes late, the appointment is rescheduled. If the doctor is 15 minutes late, the patient is expected to wait. Staff have separate bathrooms. This context surrounding visits helps to create passivity and deference to the expert, even when the doctor believes SDM is taking place.

 Thus, it is necessary for the prescriber to engage in very specific behaviors to ensure that SDM is taking place.

 providers must engage in a number of steps to ensure that SDM is taking place, engages the patient, and offers hope. These include:

 Choice talk, which involves making a statement that the 2 participants must think about what to do next, offering choices, emphasizing individual preferences

 Option talk, which involves checking the patient’s knowledge, describing options in terms of harms and benefits, providing decision support, and summarizing using the teach-back method

 Decision talk, which involves eliciting a preference and moving to a decision

Our research group has modified Elwyn’s model to include the responsibilities of the patient to Tell, Ask, Choose, and Review. Patient’s must Tell the doctor important information about their condition and context, Ask key questions about options, Choose or choose to defer choice, and Review the impact of their choice.

By training both providers and patients to engage in SDM using simple models that focus on specific behaviors, we may be able to increase the likelihood that SDM will take place in decision-making about treatment options in mental health.

 For further coverage of the 2017 US Psychiatric and Mental Health Congress, please visit our website:

 www.psychiatrictimes.com/psych-congress-2017

This article was originally posted on 9/13/17 and has since been updated.

Dr. Velligan is Director, Division of Community Recovery, Research and Training; and Henry B. Dielman Chair, Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX.

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 Joosten EA, DeFuentes_Merillas L, De Weert GH, et al. Systematic review of the effects of shared decision-making on patient satisfaction, treatment adherence, and health status.

 Alston C. Shared Decision Making Strategies for Best Care: Patient Decision Aids. Washington, DC: National Academy of Medicine; 2014. 

https://nam.edu/perspectives-2014-shared-decision-making-strategies-for-best-care-patient-decision-aids/

 Gulbrandsen P, Clayman ML, Beach MC, et al. Shared decision-making as an existential journey: aiming for restored autonomous capacity. 

Shared decision making: a model for clinical practice

Articles

These 3 steps can help you ensure that shared decision making is actually taking place.

The Truth About Shared Decision Making

Schizophrenia remains among the top 10 disabling conditions worldwide for young adults. Including care expenditures and disability, the costs of serious mental illnesses are more than $317 billion annually in the United States, or more than $1000 per year for every man, woman, and child.

 In the US, the cost of treatment and loss in productivity associated with schizophrenia are estimated to be above $60 billion annually.

 More than three-quarters of this amount is associated with loss in productivity.

Patients with schizophrenia struggle with many functional impairments, including performance of independent living skills, social functioning, and occupational/educational performance and attainment. Most patients require some public assistance for support, and only 10% to 20% of patients are able to sustain full- or part-time competitive employment.

 Improving functional outcomes for these individuals is a significant mental health priority.

It may be that the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, including problems with motivation, social interactions, affective experience and responsiveness, prosody and clarity of speech, and slowed movement, contribute more to poor functional outcomes and quality of life for individuals with schizophrenia than do positive symptoms. Caregivers report high levels of burden secondary to negative symptoms.

Negative symptoms tend to persist longer than positive symptoms and are more difficult to treat. Improvements in negative symptoms were associated with a variety of improved functional outcomes, including independent living skills, social functioning, and role functioning.

 Moreover, such improvements predicted future improvements in global functional outcomes for patients with schizophrenia. Thus, targeting negative symptoms in the treatment of schizophrenia may have significant functional benefits.

Current antipsychotic agents are most effective for treating the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. During brief medication visits, physicians typically focus on considerations related to delusions, hallucinations, disorganized and aggressive behavior, and hostility. These common symptoms may increase during relapse, resulting in hospitalization, emergency department visits, and crisis center services, or in incarceration in the criminal justice system.

Physicians may not be aware of the impact of negative symptoms on the patient’s and caregiver’s lives, may not know how to assess these symptoms, and may be unfamiliar with treatment strategies that favorably impact negative symptoms. In this article, we describe the signs generally regarded as negative symptoms, some of the etiological factors that contribute to a negative symptom presentation, and ways of treating these symptoms.

Negative symptoms represent a reduction of emotional responsiveness, motivation, socialization, speech, and movement. Analytic studies of multiple instruments indicate that these domains load onto 2 primary factors: avolition-apathy and diminished expressiveness. Primary negative symptoms are thought to be etiologically related to the core pathophysiology of schizophrenia, whereas secondary negative symptoms are derivative of other symptoms of schizophrenia, other disease processes, medications, or the environment. For example, antipsychotic medications variably produce both akinesia and blunted affect. Depression can cause anhedonia, lack of motivation, and social withdrawal. Lack of stimulation in impoverished institutional environments can lead to complacency and problems with motivation and initiation of productive activities.

A negative symptom presentation can also be the result of psychotic processes. Social withdrawal can be caused by paranoia or by immersion in the psychotic process to the exclusion of real-life relationships. Primary and enduring negative symptoms are frequently referred to as the “deficit syndrome.” Individuals with the deficit syndrome have been found to have greater cognitive deficits and poorer outcomes than patients who do not have this syndrome.

This brief narrative describes a typical day in the life of a patient with schizophrenia. It is apparent that the patient demonstrates several classic negative symptoms, including blunted emotional responsiveness, blunted affect, and decreased motivation.

Jesse is a 32-year-old Hispanic man with a 12-year history of schizophrenia. He responds slowly to questions and elaborates very little. He presents with blunted affect and makes few expressive gestures during the interview. Below he describes a typical day.

: Yes. Then I smoke a cigarette. Then I eat.

: Cereal or something leftover like a hamburger from [fast food restaurant].

: After I eat? I smoke another cigarette.

: Sometimes I walk to the store if I am out of cigarettes.

Further questioning by the interviewer gets each piece of the information.

: I haven’t done that in a while. I take a nap around 6. Then I eat dinner.

: And what do you do between dinner and bedtime?

: Can you tell me about a show you saw in the past week?

[further coaxing produces no additional information]

: Can you tell me about something going on in the world right now?

: Do you call anyone or go see any family or friends?

: My dad comes over once a week to check on me.

: Do you see anyone else, or call someone.

: Do you have any hobbies, things you like to do.

Jesse seldom speaks spontaneously and needs to be prompted repeatedly by the interviewer to describe his day. When he speaks, he does not elaborate, which requires more detailed questioning. He is not physically active and spends most of his day watching television and smoking. He has no friends and is visited by his father once a week. In response to questions about his interests, he indicates that he likes basketball, but he neither plays nor watches basketball games. His affect is blunted throughout the conversation, and he is not emotionally responsive. Indeed, he cannot convincingly describe any recent emotional experiences from any portion of the emotional spectrum.

When asked, Jesse states that he wants to get a job, but he has done nothing to find a job in more than a decade. In general, Jesse claims to be content with his life and has no issues that he wishes to bring to his doctor’s attention. Interviews with family members reveal that these traits have characterized Jesse for many years.

Jesse is seen every 3 months for brief medication visits. His treating physician seldom inquires about the quality of Jesse’s life, the manner in which he spends his time, or his overall functioning. Because there are no obvious positive symptoms and no problems with acting out or hostility, changes in medication that are initiated are limited to those relating to considerations of tolerability. Even these changes are made cautiously so as not to result in an exacerbation of his positive symptoms.

Jesse’s case is illustrative of thousands of cases in psychiatric practice. Some of the reluctance to get into such issues is related to the limited time public sector physicians have to spend with each patient. Consequently, these clinicians tend to focus on the patient’s most pressing needs, such as suicidal or aggressive behaviors or severe symptom exacerbations. The patient’s overall functioning and symptoms characterized by the negative syndrome are generally not considered an important focus of treatment by either the physician or the patient.

Note that Jesse does not have a “chief complaint.” He is content with his life and his family seems to accept these symptoms. This lack of awareness of negative symptoms, often confused with anhedonia, is common in individuals with schizophrenia living in the community. For the most part, neither clinicians nor society has targeted these symptoms as an unmet health care need.

Individuals with schizophrenia are often unaware of the extent of their negative symptoms. They frequently do not spontaneously report negative symptoms as problems and are less concerned about them than their relatives may be. It is important to make accurate assessments of negative symptoms. Although there are no well-established clinical assessment tools to measure treatment progress or failure, there are several instruments that measure negative symptoms (primarily used in research).

 presents the domains of negative symptoms identified from the Negative Symptom Assessment (NSA) and describes the behaviors that might be observed in each domain. In addition to observation, it is important to ask questions regarding the person’s daily activities and engagement with others. The NSA-16 may be too labor-intensive for routine use in a public outpatient setting. To quickly identify and record negative symptoms in these settings, two 4-item versions of negative symptom rating scales are available.

 Direct-care workers can be trained to reliably administer and score these brief negative symptom scales.

A clinically useful question derived from the NSA asks, “Starting from the time you get up, could you tell me how you have spent a typical day in the past week?” From this one question, many different levels of clinical information can be gathered. Does the person generate a multifaceted answer without prompting or, as described in the interview above, does the psychiatrist have to pull out every detail? Is the individual enthusiastic about specific activities? Is the individual actively engaged with hobbies, friends, and productive activity during the day? How does this individual compare with a young person without schizophrenia?

Options for treatment of negative symptoms

If negative symptoms are secondary to extrapyramidal syndrome (EPS) or antipsychotic treatment, they can be decreased by prescribing an antipsychotic with a lower likelihood of producing EPS or by reducing the dosage of the current antipsychotic to a level that does not produce the adverse effects. In the latter case, care must be taken to observe for an increase in other clinical symptoms.

Similarly, if negative symptoms are related to depressed affect, treatments for depression may be considered. While there is increasing evidence that antidepressants may have a positive impact on negative symptoms, more evidence from larger-scale prospective studies is needed before definitive conclusions can be reached regarding the value of this option. A recent double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy of reboxetine and citalopram as adjunctive 

 did not support their use in the treatment of negative symptoms.

Alternatively, if negative symptoms, such as social withdrawal, are caused by the patient’s response to positive symptoms, increasing the dosage of antipsychotic medication or switching to a different antipsychotic may be warranted. If options for treating secondary causes of negative symptoms have failed, the options for pharmacological treatment are limited at present. Current antipsychotic treatments appear to have a modest impact at best on negative symptoms.

Novel compounds to specifically address negative symptoms are being studied in large-scale clinical trials. Some promising compounds that affect the glutamate system initially demonstrated improvements in negative symptoms.

 Bitopertin (a glycine transporter type 1 inhibitor) added to current antipsychotic treatment improved negative symptoms after 8 weeks compared with antipsychotic treatment plus placebo.

 Moreover, a strong trend for improved functional outcome as measured by the Personal and Social Performance Scale was seen in the bitopertin group. Unfortunately, phase 3 trials of bitopertin did not support its efficacy for the treatment of negative symptoms.

Several companies have recently stopped development of glycine transporter type 1 inhibitors. Boosting cholinergic signaling may be an alternative for improving both cognitive and negative symptoms, and Î±7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor co-agonists are being investigated in phase 2 and 3 trials.

 Folic acid and vitamin B12 improved negative symptoms, but treatment response was related to genetic variation in folate absorbtion.

 Other studies of various compounds are ongoing and represent hope for the pharmacotherapy for negative symptoms.

Combining antipsychotic and adjunctive treatments with psychosocial interventions may also improve negative symptom outcomes more than pharmacotherapy alone.

 Environmental supports to prompt and cue adaptive behaviors led to improvement on the motivation factor of the NSA.

 Improvements on this factor showed individuals with better everyday-living outcomes. They were more involved in activities, more engaged in the world around them, took better care of themselves (eg, grooming, hygiene), and were more likely to pursue goals. It may be that some of this improvement has to do with decreasing the environmental impoverishment that contributes to secondary negative symptoms rather than improving primary negative signs of schizophrenia.

Environmental supports may also prompt individuals to take part in activities they would otherwise not initiate, bypassing some of the apathy associated with negative symptoms. Social skills training has been found to improve social adjustment for individuals with schizophrenia.

 Teaching the skills needed to interact with others gives patients the tools needed to initiate conversations and maintain relationships.

Results from a study by Grant and colleagues

 showed that cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) improved negative symptoms. Patients learned to address self-defeating thoughts, which often underlie problems in motivation.

A novel treatment, motivation and enhancement therapy (MOVE) is currently being tested for severe and persistent negative symptoms. MOVE combines environmental supports, CBT, skills training, and several other components in an attempt to address all domains of negative symptoms.

 Preliminary results suggest that MOVE improves overall negative symptoms, but only after 9 months of treatment.

 While more work on psychosocial treatments that specifically target negative symptoms is necessary, referral to psychosocial treatment is an important option to consider in dealing with enduring negative symptoms.

Finally, it is important to educate families about the nature of schizophrenia and negative symptoms. When the family is more aware that poor motivation, flat affect, and decreased involvement and activity reflect symptoms of schizophrenia rather than problems with the character of the individual, it reduces the likelihood that the family will be overly critical of these behaviors.

Negative symptoms represent an important treatment target in schizophrenia. It is essential to assess for negative symptoms, treat the secondary causes of these symptoms, keep informed of innovations in pharmacotherapy, and refer patients and families to psychosocial therapy in an attempt to improve outcomes and quality of life for these individuals. New pharmacological treatments to address negative symptoms are awaiting the results of phase 3 trials.

Dr Velligan is Professor and Director of the Division of Schizophrenia and Related Disorders in the department of psychiatry at the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio. Dr Alphs is Therapeutic Area Leader in Psychiatry, Medical and Scientific Affairs, for Janssen, LP, Ortho-McNeil Janssen Scientific Affairs, LLC, Titusville, NJ. Dr Velligan reports that she has the following relationships: Lundbeck-Otsuka: consultant, travel expenses, honoraria, speakers’ bureau, and advisory board; Bristol-Myers Squibb: consultant, honoraria; Janssen: consultant, honoraria advisory board; Genentech-Roche, consultant, honoraria, travel expenses, advisory board, research grant. Dr Alphs reports that he is employed by Ortho-McNeil Janssen.

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What signs are generally regarded as negative symptoms? What etiological factors contribute to a negative symptom presentation? How to treat these symptoms? Insights here.

Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia: An Update on Identification and Treatment

Schizophrenia is among the top 10 disabling conditions worldwide for young adults.

 In the United States, the cost of treatment and loss in productivity associated with schizophrenia are estimated to be as high as $60 billion annually.

 More than three quarters of this amount is associated with loss in productivity.

 Patients with schizophrenia struggle with many functional impairments, including performance of independent living skills, social functioning, and occupational/educational performance and attainment.

 Most patients require some public assistance for support, and only 10% to 20% of patients are able to sustain full- or part-time competitive employment.

 that the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, including problems with motivation, social withdrawal, diminished affective responsiveness, speech, and movement, contribute more to poor functional outcomes and quality of life for individuals with schizophrenia than do positive symptoms.

 Moreover, caregivers of patients with negative symptoms report high levels of burden.

 Negative symptoms tend to persist longer than positive symptoms and are more difficult to treat.

 Research suggests that improvements in negative symptoms are associated with a variety of improved functional outcomes including independent living skills, social functioning, and role functioning.

 Targeting negative symptoms in the treatment of schizophrenia may have significant functional benefits. Treatment of negative symptoms has been identified as a vital 

Psychological Therapies for Schizophrenia: Family and Cognitive Interventions

New Findings in Early-Onset Schizophrenia

Treatment Challenges in Schizophrenia: A Multifaceted Approach to Relapse Prevention

Complementary Therapies for Schizophrenia: Expanding the Clinician’s Toolbox

antipsychotic treatments primarily address the positive symptoms of the disorder

 In brief medication visits, physicians typically assess issues related to delusions, hallucinations, disorganized and aggressive behavior, and hostility. These are common symptoms that may cause individuals to be hospitalized, go to emergency departments, seek out crisis services, or come to the attention of the criminal justice system. Physicians may not be aware of the extent of negative symptoms, may not know how to assess these symptoms, may be unclear about the impact of treatments on negative symptoms, and may be unfamiliar with treatment strategies that may favorably impact negative symptoms. In this article, we describe the nature of negative symptoms, some of the etiological factors that contribute to a negative symptom presentation, and ways of addressing negative symptoms.

Negative symptoms represent a reduction of emotional responsiveness, motivation, socialization, speech, and movement. Primary negative symptoms are etiologically related to the core pathophysiology of schizophrenia whereas secondary negative symptoms are derivative of other symptoms of schizophrenia, other disease processes, medications, or environment.

 For example, antipsychotic medications can produce akinesia or blunted affect. Depression can cause anhedonia, lack of motivation, and social withdrawal. Lack of stimulation in impoverished institutional environments can lead to complacency and problems with motivation and initiation. Negative symptoms can also be the result of psychotic processes.

 For example, social withdrawal can be caused by paranoia or by immersion in the psychotic process to the exclusion of real-life relationships. Primary and enduring negative symptoms are often referred to as the "deficit syndrome."

 Individuals with the deficit syndrome have been found to have greater cognitive deficits and poorer outcomes than patients who do not have this syndrome.

 presents a description of a typical day of a patient with schizophrenia. As will be apparent, the patient demonstrates several classic negative symptoms, including blunted emotional responsiveness. "Jesse" produces very little speech and needs to be repeatedly prompted by the interviewer. He spends his days without much physical activity, mostly watching television. He has no friends and is visited by his father once a week. His interests are restricted to watching television and smoking. While he states that he likes basketball, he does not play or watch basketball. Emotional responsiveness was blunted in the interview even with attempts to elicit it. Interviews with family members revealed that Jesse has exhibited these behaviors for many years. When asked, Jesse states that he wants to get a job, but he has done nothing to find a job in more than a decade.

Individuals like Jesse are often seen for brief medication visits. Because there are no obvious positive symptoms and no problems with acting out or hostility, few changes in medication may be initiated. There may be little questioning on the part of the treating physician to determine the quality of Jesse's life or manner in which he spends his time. Some of the reluctance to get into such issues has to do with the limited time public-sector physicians may be able to spend with each patient. In most clinicians' minds, patients with pressing needs, such as suicidal or aggressive behaviors or severe symptom exacerbations, need more immediate attention. Moreover, the symptoms embodied in the negative syndrome may not be considered an important domain for treatment by either the physician or the patient. Note that Jesse does not identify anything about his life as a "chief complaint." His family seems to accept these symptoms, and for the most part, society has not targeted them as an unmet health care need. There may also be a perception among physicians that little can be done for negative symptoms even if they are identified.

Individuals with schizophrenia are often unaware of the extent of their negative symptoms.

 They frequently do not spontaneously report negative symptoms as problems and are less concerned about them than their relatives may be.

 Family members may complain of a lack of an emotional connection with their son or daughter and state that the individual is not involved in life, but they do not aggressively seek treatment for these symptoms. Physicians or physician extenders will usually not get information about negative symptoms unless they have time to observe and to ask about specific behaviors. Furthermore, if symptoms are identified, there are no generally recognized approaches to treatment or well-established clinical assessment tools to measure treatment progress or failure.

However, several instruments have been developed to measure negative symptoms. The 

 presents the domains of negative symptoms from the Negative Symptom Assessment (NSA)

 and describes the behaviors that might be observed in each domain. In addition to observation, it is important to ask questions regarding the person's daily activities and engagement with others. A very good question derived from the NSA asks, "Starting from the time you get up, could you tell me how you have spent a typical day in the past week?" From this one question, many different levels of clinical information can be gathered. Does the person generate a multifaceted answer without prompting, or as in the interview above, does the psychiatrist have to pull out every detail? Is the individual enthusiastic about specific activities? Is the individual actively engaged with hobbies, friends, and productive activity during the day? How does this individual compare with a person without schizophrenia of the same age and sex?

If negative symptoms are secondary to antipsychotic treatment, the symptoms can be decreased by prescribing an antipsychotic with a low likelihood of producing parkinsonian adverse effects or by reducing the dosage of the current antipsychotic to a level that does not produce extrapyramidal adverse effects. Similarly, if negative symptoms are related to depressed affect, treatments for depression could be considered. While there is no clear evidence that depression in schizophrenia responds to SSRIs, there is some evidence that SSRIs can have a positive impact on negative symptoms.

Alternatively, if negative symptoms, such as social withdrawal, are caused by immersion in positive symptoms, increasing the dosage of antipsychotic medication or switching to a different antipsychotic may be warranted. If options for treating secondary causes of negative symptoms have failed, the options for pharmacological treatment are limited at present. Current 

 appear to have a modest impact at best on negative symptoms.

The perceived benefits of the atypical antipsychotics on negative symptoms may result primarily from decreasing the burden of extrapyramidal adverse effects rather than better efficacy for core negative symptoms.

 However, there is some evidence that patients treated with atypical antipsychotics are more likely to participate in psychosocial treatments.

 The negative symptom benefits often attributed to atypical antipsychotics may reflect improvements because of the psychosocial interventions and not the medications per se.

 Novel compounds to specifically address negative symptoms are actively being developed,

 and there is a great deal of discussion in the literature about the best study designs to test these compounds for treatment effectiveness.

 Although a few studies with ampakines and more traditional broad-spectrum atypical antipsychotics are under way in patients with predominant and/or persistent negative symptoms, results for many of these trials are not yet available. Recently reported results of a trial of an ampakine were negative.

Combining atypical antipsychotics with psychosocial interventions may have more potential to improve negative symptom outcomes than pharmacotherapy alone.

 In several randomized, rater-blind trials, we have found that environmental supports to prompt and cue adaptive behaviors led to improvement on the motivation factor of the NSA.

 Improvements on this factor suggest that individuals are more involved in activities, more engaged in the world around them, are performing grooming and hygiene tasks more regularly, and are more likely to pursue goals. It may be that some of this improvement has to do with decreasing the environmental impoverishment that contributes to secondary negative symptoms rather than improving primary negative signs of schizophrenia. Environmental supports may also prompt individuals to take part in activities they would otherwise not initiate, bypassing some of the apathy associated with negative symptoms. Moreover, social skills training has been found to improve social adjustment for individuals with schizophrenia.

 The teaching of skills needed to interact with others makes more successful attempts at initiation of conversations and maintenance of relationships likely. While more work on psychosocial treatments that specifically target negative symptoms is necessary, referral to psychosocial treatment is an important option for physicians to consider in dealing with enduring negative symptoms.

In addition, it is important to educate families about the nature of schizophrenia and negative symptoms. When the family is more aware that poor motivation, flat affect, and decreased involvement and activity reflect symptoms of schizophrenia rather than problems with the character of the individual, this can reduce the likelihood that the family will be overly critical of these behaviors.

Negative symptoms represent an important treatment target in schizophrenia. It is essential to assess for negative symptoms, treat the secondary causes of these symptoms and refer patients and families to psychosocial therapy in an attempt to improve outcomes and quality of life for these individuals. New pharmacological treatments to address negative symptoms should also be actively pursued.

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Treatment of negative symptoms of schizophrenia -- eg, problems with motivation, social withdrawal, diminished affective responsiveness, speech, and movement -- is associated with a variety of improved functional outcomes and is a vital unmet clinical need.

Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia: The Importance of Identification and Treatment

At the conclusion of a session on neuropsychological processing in bipolar disorder at last summer's meeting in Edinburgh of the International Society for Bipolar Disorders, a member of the audience thanked the panel for publicizing the cognitive deficits associated with bipolar disorder. As an advocate for and an individual with bipolar affective disorder, the woman claimed that while mental health professionals are focused on treating mood symptoms, only rarely do they consider the impact of neuropsychological difficulties on patients' lives. Indeed, she firmly stated that her poor memory and difficulty in concentrating influenced her daily life more than the affective symptoms of the disorder. Although it is unclear how well this woman represented the larger community of persons with bipolar disorder, it is clear that the cognitive sequelae of bipolar disorder and their impact on psychosocial functioning are rarely considered when developing treatment plans.

There is growing evidence that individuals with bipolar affective disorder have cognitive impairments, even during periods of symptom remission. While these impairments are typically less pronounced than those found in other psychiatric (eg, schizophrenia) or neurological (eg, Alzheimer dementia) illnesses, reduced neuropsychological ability appears to significantly affect psychosocial functioning in patients with bipolar disorder. In this article, we review evidence for cognitive disruptions in bipolar disorder and examine the relationship between these impairments and clinical outcome. In addition, we discuss the appropriateness of neuropsychological treatment targets in bipolar disorder.


Although it is unclear how common cognitive impairment is among individuals with bipolar disorder, a significant portion of patients complain of neuropsychological difficulties. Because formal neuropsychological deficits have been documented in asymptomatic patients who do not complain of cognitive difficulties, it is possible that neuropsychological impairments may be more widespread than clinical experience suggests.

 Indeed, we recently reported that 75% of asymptomatic patients scored more than one standard deviation below healthy controls on at least 4 cognitive measures,

 suggesting widespread, but relatively mild, neuropsychological dysfunction in patients with bipolar disorder.

However, neuropsychological functioning is not a unitary process and consists of multiple, partially dissociable cognitive domains (eg, attention, processing speed, working or declarative memory, executive processing, language, intelligence quotient [IQ]). Currently, there is very little evidence of language or IQ deficits in patients with bipolar disorder. Rather, those euthymic patients with bipolar disorder who have cognitive difficulties tend to have attentional, executive, and declarative or long-term memory impairments.

Neuropsychological impairments found in euthymic patients with bipolar disorder may be confounded by clinical variables such as the manifestation of subclinical symptoms or broader epiphenomena of an individual's illness history (eg, illness duration, number of hospitalizations, or medication use). While the importance of subclinical symptoms or illness sequelae is debated in the literature, a pragmatic approach suggests that since most patients who are in remission continue to have low-level cognitive symptoms, cognitive deficits should be considered when planning treatment strategies.

Effects of psychotropic medications on cognition


Although the use of psychotropic medications may affect neuropsychological functioning, systematic investigation of the cognitive impact of these agents in patients with bipolar disorder has been limited. A qualitative review concluded that while lithium had a negative effect on memory and speed of information processing, patients were often unaware of these deficits.

There is growing evidence that individuals with bipolar affective disorder have cognitive impairments, even during periods of symptom remission. 