Also In this Special Report
Peter F. Buckley, MD
Freya Shepherd, MSc, BSc; William Davies, PhD
Sociocultural factors have been shown to impact both the presentation and course of schizophrenia/psychosis. Learn more here.
SPECIAL REPORT: PSYCHOSIS PART 1
The lifetime prevalence of schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders is approximately 1% of the population.1 These disorders have clear genetic and biological underpinnings2 and generally respond favorably to antipsychotic medication, particularly in reducing the hallmark positive symptoms (eg, delusions, hallucinations).3 However, even with medication, some positive symptoms persist. Furthermore, negative symptoms (eg, asociality, amotivation), which have an even greater detrimental impact on quality of life, are less impacted by medication,4 underscoring a need for additional therapeutic interventions for individuals with
Case 1
“Mr Williams” is a 40-year-old single Black man with a history of schizophrenia, although he notes, “I have been told I have everything: schizophrenia,
Peter F. Buckley, MD
Freya Shepherd, MSc, BSc; William Davies, PhD
Mr Williams’ statement about his many diagnoses reflects an unfortunate reality for Black men with experiences of psychosis. It has been shown that Black men tend to to be overdiagnosed with schizophrenia and underdiagnosed with bipolar disorder.5 Notably, schizophrenia tends to be more stigmatized than
Although Mr Williams seems to relay his experiences of disparate diagnoses to his provider as humorous, it should act as a clue to the provider that his existing diagnosis may not be accurate and that Mr Williams may not completely trust the insights of his providers. Potential follow-up questions may be: “What do you think about your diagnosis? Is there a label you prefer that reflects your difficulties with mental health?” Direct questioning about symptomology would also be needed to clarify diagnosis, but these initial questions can help create a shared language between provider and client that prioritizes the client’s understanding of the symptoms. Providers may also reflect this experience back to the client: “That might be frustrating—to be told all these different diagnoses over the years.” Acknowledgements like this can help establish a sense of trust, letting your patients know it is appropriate to acknowledge their challenges with the health care system to their providers.
Mr Williams endorses a belief that the police are recording him inside his house and has acted in response to this delusion. Providers are often told not to reinforce delusions or give them too much airtime beyond what it takes for diagnosis and assessment of severity. Unfortunately, this guidance may be overused such that providers avoid better understanding or seeing the greater context of delusions/hallucinatory symptoms. The presentation and expression of symptoms differs across ethnic groups, often due to differential experiences and environments.6,7
In the case of Mr Williams, although the police may not be explicitly recording him in his home (although further questioning is warranted), his delusion seems triggered by real-life experiences. Black Americans are proportionally more impacted by police brutality and
In addition, increased experiences of discrimination are linked to increased
In a similar vein, Mr Williams also acknowledged hearing the voice of his late grandmother, but notes that he likes hearing from her. Although hallucinations/voices can be extremely distressing, they are not always so, with some cultures or groups having higher rates of positive or benign experiences.11 In fact, there is a growing movement among those with experiences of hallucinatory voices to integrate them into daily life rather than trying to avoid them completely (ie, Hearing Voices Network), with some evidence of success.12 Providing quality care therefore involves balancing many considerations (eg, existing symptoms, adverse effects, barriers to adherence), and the distress of current symptoms should not be assumed. Follow-up questions should aim to be neutral (“What is it like to hear your grandmother’s voice? How often does this happen? Are you able to shift your focus when other things need to be done?”) to get a better sense of how it impacts Mr Williams.
Case 2
“Ms Khan” is a 55-year-old divorced Sunni Muslim Pakistani woman on disability, diagnosed with
Ms Khan endorses a belief that the reason she is struggling to leave bed is the influence of a jinn (ie, a supernatural spirit/demon). A provider unfamiliar with Islam may automatically view this as a sign of pathology. To assess this, however, a clinician should attempt to clarify how common this type of belief is to those who are part of the community. Clinicians may do this by asking questions directly (“I am unfamiliar with jinn. Is this a common experience for other individuals you know?”) but may also need to seek consultation from the patient’s community. In this case, research suggests that many Muslims do indeed believe that physical and mental ailments (eg, sleep paralysis, depression, fever) are caused by jinn13 and subsequently endorse religious-based solutions such as wudhu (ie, ablution), prayer, and consulting an imam. However, Muslims and other religious groups tend to endorse multiple models of mental illness, often endorsing biological factors in addition to others (eg, jinn, engaging in sin, God’s will, environmental factors).14
In developing suggestions, clinicians may gain more traction by acknowledging the patient’s perspective. Clinicians should still provide recommendations within their purview (eg, medication changes, therapy recommendations), while also supporting cultural practice and assisting in problem- solving (“Are there other Muslims you know to whom you can reach out for support?”).
In addition, Ms Khan would likely benefit from greater religious coping, because she indicates that being less engaged with her religious practice leads to more distress. In fact, in the United States, the majority of the general public and individuals with schizophrenia in particular endorse engaging in religious and spiritual practices and report finding these practices highly important to them.15,16 Religious practice is also broadly associated with better mental health.16,17 In the case of Ms Khan, if clinicians consider behavioral activation—for example, an emphasis on increased religious practice (eg, prayer and wudhu) and engagement with religious community (eg, going to mosque, finding Quran study groups)—this may be especially beneficial, because it already aligns with the patient’s belief system and desires.
Clinicians should be wary of 2 potential issues. First, not all religious coping is created equal, with some strategies consistently leading to less distress (eg, prayer, belief that God is supportive) and others leading to more distress (eg, believing one’s difficulties are a punishment from God, using religion to avoid problems).18 Second, emphasis on religion may not be useful if the patient endorses significant religious delusions. In these cases, focusing on other strategies (eg, light exercise, relaxation techniques) and support networks (eg, family, book club) tends to be more beneficial.
Case 3
“Mr Baker” is a 60-year-old White retired male veteran who received a diagnosis of schizophrenia and lives with his long-term girlfriend. Over the past year, he has struggled to keep up with chores and relies on his girlfriend to make most of his meals. This has led to fights that escalate into his girlfriend threatening to leave him due to his “laziness, lack of caring, and craziness.” Mr Baker feels like a burden on his girlfriend and is also afraid to tell others how much he struggles with his mental health. “I always prided myself, especially with my veterans group, that I was dependable and logical. If I admit to them that I have heard voices and had to go to the hospital, I will have to admit I am a screwed-up person.”
Mr Baker has internalized the idea that mental illness is shameful, which is more common among men.19 Unfortunately, self-stigma is linked to marked increases in distress and to greater risk of suicide.20 His noted feelings of burdensomeness, therefore, could warrant a suicide risk assessment. Although psychoeducation can reduce
There is also a high level of criticism and hostility (ie, expressed emotion) in Mr Baker’s household, which research indicates is related to higher rates of relapse for individuals with serious mental illness.22 Hostility and criticism occur in some ethnic groups at higher rates (eg, White families) than others (eg, Latinos).23 Mr Baker and his girlfriend may benefit from psychoeducation such that they can recognize that many of Mr Baker’s symptoms are related to a mental illness. This could help reduce some of the girlfriend’s frustration by shifting the blame away from her partner. This couple might also benefit from developing strategies to meet their household needs and demands in tandem with each other. Culturally informed therapy for schizophrenia (CIT-S) is a family intervention that emphasizes the family unit’s shared values, engages in psychoeducation with culture in mind, reinforces positive religious coping, and guides the family unit through communication and problem-solving techniques.24 Rather than solely focusing on Mr Baker, it equally acknowledges the needs of his girlfriend and guides both individuals through their shared difficulties.
Concluding Thoughts
Practices like CIT-S also highlight an important message across all 3 cases. Clinicians often see the individual (identified patient) arriving at a session as the sole therapy target. However, there is an untapped but extremely important social support network integral to the lives and well-being of individuals with schizophrenia/psychosis. It may be a family member who suggested they visit a doctor (case 1), a larger religious community that provides meaning (case 2), or a partner who provides resources (case 3). In addition to employing the aforementioned strategies and being mindful of cultural distinctions, providers benefit from relying on these social structures (eg, consultation) and encouraging their patients to be more engaged in these social supports, which ultimately could be an invaluable resource in improving the lives of patients with schizophrenia/psychosis.
Ms McLaughlin is a predoctoral psychology trainee at the University of Miami in Florida. Dr Weisman de Mamani is a professor of psychology at the University of Miami.
References
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22. Hooley JM.
23. Kymalainen JA, Weisman de Mamani AG.
24. Weisman de Mamani A, McLaughlin M, Altamirano O, et al. Culturally Informed Therapy for Schizophrenia: A Family-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Approach, Clinician Guide. Oxford University Press; 2021. ❒
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