
- Vol 41, Issue 12
Demystifying Lithium Therapy—A Primer for Clinicians: Renal Issues, Part 1
Key Takeaways
- Lithium is underused in bipolar disorder treatment despite its neuroprotective benefits and reduced dementia risk.
- Concerns about renal adverse effects often limit lithium use, though these risks are sometimes exaggerated.
In this CME article, learn more about recent developments with lithium as they relate to renal issues.
CATEGORY 1 CME
Premiere Date: December 20, 2024
Expiration Date: June 20, 2026
This activity offers CE credits for:
1. Physicians (CME)
2. Other
All other clinicians either will receive a CME Attendance Certificate or may choose any of the types of CE credit being offered.
ACTIVITY GOAL
To inform readers of the recent developments with lithium as they relate to renal issues.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Educate clinicians about recent advances in the understanding of lithium-related renal dysfunction and practices that mitigate lithium’s renal impact.
2. Describe how lithium’s accumulation in collecting duct principal cells is the cause of polyuria, and describe methods to track this complaint and treat it with the epithelial sodium channel–antagonist amiloride.
TARGET AUDIENCE
This accredited continuing education (CE) activity is intended for psychiatrists, psychologists, primary care physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners, and other health care professionals who seek to improve their care for patients with mental health disorders.
ACCREDITATION/CREDIT DESIGNATION/FINANCIAL SUPPORT
This activity has been planned and implemented in accordance with the accreditation requirements and policies of the Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education (ACCME) through the joint providership of Physicians’ Education Resource,® LLC, and Psychiatric Times®. Physicians’ Education Resource, LLC, is accredited by the ACCME to provide continuing medical education for physicians.
Physicians’ Education Resource, LLC, designates this enduring material for a maximum of 1.5 AMA PRA Category 1 Credits.™ Physicians should claim only the credit commensurate with the extent of their participation in the activity.
This activity is funded entirely by Physicians’ Education Resource, LLC. No commercial support was received.
OFF-LABEL DISCLOSURE/DISCLAIMER
This accredited CE activity may or may not discuss investigational, unapproved, or off-label use of drugs. Participants are advised to consult prescribing information for any products discussed. The information provided in this accredited CE activity is for continuing medical education purposes only and is not meant to substitute for the independent clinical judgment of a physician relative to diagnostic or treatment options for a specific patient’s medical condition. The opinions expressed in the content are solely those of the individual faculty members and do not reflect those of Physicians’ Education Resource, LLC.
FACULTY, STAFF, AND PLANNERS’ DISCLOSURES AND CONFLICT OF INTEREST MITIGATION
None of the staff of Physicians’ Education Resource, LLC, or Psychiatric Times or the planners or the authors of this educational activity have relevant financial relationship(s) to disclose with ineligible companies whose primary business is producing, marketing, selling, reselling, or distributing health care products used by or on patients.
For content-related questions, email us at
HOW TO CLAIM CREDIT
Once you have read the article, please use the following URL to evaluate and request credit:
(This is the first part of a discussion on lithium. Part 2 can be found
Lithium remains underused for the treatment of patients with a history of mania (eg, schizoaffective disorder, bipolar type, or bipolar I disorder [BD-1]), although it remains the gold therapeutic standard as noted in treatment guidelines published since 2018 (
This primer will outline the modern understanding of all patient and medication-related factors that impact the development of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in BD spectrum individuals, detail how to minimize lithium’s contribution to CKD risk through single daily dosing at bedtime (QHS) and use of modest 12-hour maintenance serum levels, and delineate why lithium’s entry into distal collecting duct principal cells via the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) is the primary cause of renal injury, with its earliest manifestation being the patient complaint of polyuria.12,13 The profound, yet simple, concept that the pathway to lithium-related CKD is via ENaC makes clear why polyuria monitoring is so vital and why the ENaC blocker amiloride is the ideal means of treating this problem.14,15
CKD and Bipolar Disorder: It Is the Patients, Not Just the Lithium
Studies of cardiometabolic health among those with serious mental disorders consistently report that cardiovascular (CV) risk factors are overrepresented in this population, but these papers often fail to note that those same CV risks overlap with risk factors for CKD: hypertension, dyslipidemia, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes mellitus.16 Adults with bipolar spectrum disorders (primarily BD-I and schizoaffective disorder, bipolar type) have higher rates of obesity and cardiometabolic disorders than the general population and this translates to increased risk for CKD.17,18 A large study using the Danish health registers found that adults with bipolar spectrum disorders (n=10,591) had 3-fold higher rates of CKD and end-stage renal disease than did their peers, and this was independent of lithium or anticonvulsant mood stabilizer use (
Despite use of modest 12-hour maintenance serum levels and single QHS dosing, lithium-treated patients can develop CKD due to medical comorbidities. Nonetheless, when somatic medical burden is modest, even patients with low baseline eGFR can be started on lithium without undue impact on age-related eGFR declines. Evidence for this comes from studies such as a 2021 retrospective analysis of eGFR changes among 83 older Swedish patients who started lithium with low baseline eGFR. After using lithium for 7.9 years, 43 patients (52%) did not progress to lower CKD stages despite a mean (SD) baseline age of 55.5 (16.8) years and a mean (SD) baseline eGFR of 54 (15) mL/min.20 Not surprisingly, the 48% of patients who experienced significant eGFR declines had a greater burden of somatic illness than did those who did not (P < .012) and also had numerically higher rates of diabetes mellitus (23% vs 12%, respectively) and CV disorders (63% vs 42%).20
Given the significant neuroprotective effects of lithium and the inevitable presence of CKD risks in older adults with BD-I (OABD), clinicians should not deprive these patients of lithium therapy; instead, clinicians must become adept in using age-appropriate maintenance levels to limit the risk of renal and central nervous system (CNS) AEs. A Delphi panel of 25 experts in OABD convened in 2019 suggested 12-hour maintenance serum levels of 0.4 to 0.8 mEq/L for patients aged 60 to 79 years and 0.4 to 0.7 mEq/L for those aged at least 80 years.23 Modest serum levels are recommended due to lower eGFR in that population, and due to age-related changes in blood-brain barrier permeability that can generate higher brain-to-serum lithium ratios over time.24-26 The serum level that was once therapeutic in a younger patient may result in excessive brain exposure as that same individual ages, and be manifested as complaints about cognition and mood.25 Lower maintenance levels thus benefit the OABD’s kidneys and, in turn, their brain.
Sins of Lithium Prescribing: Multiple Daily Dosing Plus High Serum Levels
Lithium was approved in the United States on April 6, 1970; as with many older medications, its product information has remained largely unchanged.27 Despite decades of evidence that the CNS half-life of lithium ranges from 28 to 48 hours,28 prescribing information continues to recommend that it be administered 2, 3, or even 4 times daily.27,29 This presents a source of danger for the patient, as multiple daily dosing and maintenance levels exceeding 1.00 mEq/L are associated with a greater risk of renal dysfunction.21,22 High 12-hour maintenance serum levels, as illustrated in
Modern consensus guidelines recommend that maintenance 12-hour serum levels be 0.6 to 0.8 mEq/L for most adults younger than 60 years33; in no instances should levels exceed 1.00 mEq/L. These recommendations are based on once-daily QHS dosing. Unfortunately, clinicians may misinterpret the level on twice-daily dosing as being mathematically and clinically equivalent to that with QHS dosing. It is not. If a patient is counseled on reasons to consolidate their lithium dosage to a single QHS dose but remains opposed, clinicians can estimate the level that would have been obtained by multiplying the level drawn 12 hours after the nightly dose by 1.28 and then adjusting the dose accordingly.34 Extended-release (ER) preparations should also be dosed once daily at bedtime; the 12-hour serum levels obtained with ER formulations are comparable to those of standard lithium formulations despite the slightly longer time to peak drug concentration (range, 3-6 vs 1-3 hours, respectively).34
The association of multiple daily dosing and increased rates of renal dysfunction has been known for over 40 years,35 but the evidence was not of the highest quality until a paper published in 2016 cemented the concept that once-daily dosing is renoprotective.21 The authors performed a case-control study of lithium treated adults in a large New England health care system in which they matched 1445 individuals with renal insufficiency (RI) 1:3 with 4306 patients without RI. In the fully adjusted model, once-daily dosing was associated with a 20% lower risk of renal insufficiency (OR, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.69-0.93; P = .003). Moreover, increased risk of RI was not seen for ER formulations when that variable was analyzed independently.
These findings, however, only apply to the treatment of adults. Children and preteen adolescents have markedly higher lithium clearance than do adults. In young patients, lithium is commonly dosed 3 times daily (mean total daily dose, 25 mg/kg).36 As these individuals approach maturity, lithium can slowly be transitioned to once-daily QHS dosing. One other useful finding from the case-control study was that even 1 high outpatient level can increase the risk of RI risk; any level exceeding 1.2 mEq/L increased the risk of RI by 72% (OR, 1.72; 95% CI 1.38-2.14).21
ENaC: What It Means, and Why It Relates to Polyuria
Lithium is filtered and reabsorbed in the glomerulus and proximal tubules in a manner equivalent to that of sodium; it is in the distal collecting ducts, however, that lithium can accumulate in tissues and cause nephrotoxicity.13 Approximately 20% of lithium reabsorption occurs in the distal collecting duct, specifically in principal cells that primarily absorb sodium and water.13 Lithium in tubular fluid readily enters these cells via the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) on the apical surface, as the form of ENaC in principal cells has 1.6 times greater affinity for lithium than it does for sodium (
There are 2 important clinical sequelae of this process. The first is the risk of lithium refusal, as polyuria is among the top 3 AEs leading to discontinuation (diarrhea, 13%; tremor, 11%; polyuria/polydipsia, 9%).40 If left untreated, the long-term impact may be renal microcyst formation, interstitial fibrosis, and tubular atrophy.14 Given the enormous effect that this process can have on patient adherence and long-term renal health, clinicians must inquire about urinary frequency at every visit and learn the tools to track severity and manage polyuria with amiloride, a potassium-sparing diuretic whose sole mechanism is ENaC antagonism.41
Concluding Thoughts
In general, clinicians are often aware of lithium’s efficacy profile, and research over the past 2 decades has provided guidance on ways to minimize lithium-related renal dysfunction through once-daily dosing at bedtime and the use of modest 12-hour serum levels based on values obtained on single nightly doses. That polyuria represents the initial manifestation of renal injury, that polyuria pathophysiology relates to lithium’s entry into collecting duct principal cells via ENaC and that amiloride is a specific treatment for this problem are often revelations to many clinicians.
When polyuria does occur, clinicians may not have been comfortable with tracking polyuria in a way other than asking the patient about severity.10,11 Periodic assessment of intrinsic renal function using eGFR is the standard of care during lithium therapy, but this metric does not provide information on renal concentration problems. Moreover, although 24-hour urine collection is the gold standard for polyuria assessment,15 it has limitations in clinical practice, especially when repeated determinations might be necessary.
Part 2 of this series will discuss use of alternative methods (eg, 24-hour fluid intake record, early morning urine osmolality) to diagnose polyuria and quantify response to interventions.10 Armed with these tools and the understanding that use of an ENaC antagonist in the form of amiloride represents the most evidence-based treatment for lithium induced polyuria, clinicians may have more confidence in offering lithium and its therapeutic advantages to their patients.
Dr Meyer is a voluntary clinical professor of psychiatry at the University of California, San Diego.
References
1. Poranen J, Koistinaho A, Tanskanen A, et al.
2. Fountoulakis KN, Tohen M, Zarate CA Jr.
3. Management of Bipolar Disorder Work Group. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for Management of Bipolar Disorder. Version 2.0-2023. US Department of Veterans Affairs. 2023. Accessed November 8, 2024.
4. New measures to avoid valproate exposure in pregnancy endorsed. Press release. European Medicines Agency. March 23, 2018. Accessed November 8, 2024.
5. Drug safety update. Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency. 2022;16(5):2-4. Accessed November 4, 2024.
6. European Medicines Agency. Valproate-containing medicines: new measures regarding the potential risk of neurodevelopmental disorders in children of fathers treated with valproate in the 3 months prior to conception. Agenzia Italiana del Farmaco. February 19, 2024. Accessed November 4, 2024.
7. Wingård L, Brandt L, Bodén R, et al.
8. Velosa J, Delgado A, Finger E, et al.
9. Malhi GS, Bell E, Hamilton A, et al.
10. Kinahan JC, NiChorcorain A, Cunningham S, et al.
11. Kinahan JC, NiChorcorain A, Cunningham S, et al.
12. Davis J, Desmond M, Berk M.
13. Davis J, Desmond M, Berk M.
14. Kalita-De Croft P, Bedford JJ, Leader JP, Walker RJ.
15. Schoot TS, Molmans THJ, Grootens KP, Kerckhoffs APM.
16. Kessing LV, Gerds TA, Feldt-Rasmussen B, et al.
17. Prillo J, Soh JF, Park H, et al.
18. Najar H, Joas E, Jonsson V, et al.
19. Clos S, Rauchhaus P, Severn A, et al.
20. Golic M, Aiff H, Attman PO, et al.
21. Castro VM, Roberson AM, McCoy TH, et al.
22. Osterland SL, Adli M, Saritas T, et al.
23. Shulman KI, Almeida OP, Herrmann N, et al.
24. Moore CM, Demopulos CM, Henry ME, et al.
25. Forester BP, Streeter CC, Berlow YA, et al.
26. Lee JH, Adler C, Norris M, et al.
27. Lithium carbonate. Product information. Glenmark Pharmaceuticals Inc; 2022. DailyMed. Accessed November 8, 2024.
28. Plenge P, Stensgaard A, Jensen HV, et al.
29. Lithium carbonate. Medication guide. Alembic Pharmaceuticals; 2023. Accessed November 8, 2024.
30. Amdisen A.
31. Greil W.
32. Swartz CM.
33. Nolen WA, Licht RW, Young AH, et al; ISBD/IGSLI Task Force on the treatment with lithium.
34. Meyer JM, Stahl SM. The Lithium Handbook - Stahl’s Handbooks. Cambridge University Press; 2023:452.
35. Schou M, Amdisen A, Thomsen K, et al.
36. Findling RL, Kafantaris V, Pavuluri M, et al.
37. Grünfeld JP, Rossier BC.
38. Kortenoeven ML, Li Y, Shaw S, et al.
39. Vallée C, Howlin B, Lewis R.
40. Öhlund L, Ott M, Oja S, et al.
41. Batlle DC, von Riotte AB, Gaviria M, Grupp M.
Articles in this issue
10 months ago
Criminal Sanctions, Psychosis, and Mortality10 months ago
Study Finds ERPOs Can Prevent Suicide by Firearms10 months ago
Wounds10 months ago
Psychopharmacology Innovations10 months ago
A Continued Evolution10 months ago
A Year of Progress and ChallengesNewsletter
Receive trusted psychiatric news, expert analysis, and clinical insights — subscribe today to support your practice and your patients.