Robert M. Kaplan, MBChB, FRANZCP, MA, MPhil

The history of psychiatry does not lack for great names. One of the greatest must be Helen Flanders Dunbar, MD, PhD. Widely recognized as the prime mover behind the psychosomatic medicine movement, she was a clinician, writer, the inaugural editor of 

 In addition, Dunbar’s work was essential to the development of consultation-liaison psychiatry. She also dedicated her professional life to promoting the role of clergy in medicine and exploring accident proneness. She lived a full, brilliant, and ultimately tragic life.

 Her father was a mathematician, engineer, and patent attorney; her mother a genealogist; and her brother, Francis, earned a master’s degree in botany at Stanford University. She, too, received a remarkable education. At Bryn Mawr College and Columbia Universityshe majored in mathematics and psychology. She then went on to earn 4 advanced degrees in 7 years. Dunbar attended 

 for medicine and obstetrics. She wrote a doctoral thesis on Dante at Columbia, while graduating magna cum laude from nearby Union Theological Seminary.

Her Episcopalian faith was a guiding light in her life, and she believed it should inform her medical practice. Dunbar worked closely with Anton Boisen, a clergyman inpatient at Westboro Mental Hospital who was convinced that religion and psychiatry needed to be connected on a professional level. Together they trained ministers to work in medical settings.

In 1929, Dunbar broadened her medical and spiritual horizons by traveling to Europe. She met the day’s leading figures in psychiatry and visited Lourdes, the world’s most famous healing shrine in France. This visit had a profound spiritual effect.

She legally changed her name to Flanders Dunbar in 1938. It is disappointing that such an accomplished woman had to change her name to overcome the prevailing misogyny.

From 1930 to 1942, Dunbar was the medical director of the Council for Clinical Training of Theological Students and director of the Joint Committee on Religion and Medicine. During this time, she earned the sobriquet of “mother of holistic medicine” with her 1935 publication of 

Emotions and Bodily Changes: A Survey of Literature on Psychosomatic Interrelationships: 1910-1933.

 In 1939, she became the first editor of the journal Psychosomatic Medicine.

American psychosomatic medicine was born in the 1930s. According to this school of thought, illnesses arose from the physiological effects of emotional stimuli. It was thought that certain psychodynamic patterns created typical illnesses, known as organ specificity. Repressed (and forgotten) emotions emerged from the unconscious to target certain organs, producing psychosomatic disorders. Somatic dysfunctions thus arose from patients’ emotional problems, which led practitioners of psychosomatic medicine to search for psychological profiles characteristic of specific syndromes. This expanded further to the belief that many diseases were psychogenic in origin and stressors, albeit undefined. Dunbar believed that having accidents was similar to the process by which other patients transformed psychological conflicts into somatic symptoms. Their personality styles and neuroses translated into accident proneness.

After 1939, Dunbar gave up academic commitments, drank heavily, alienated followers, and left the American Psychosomatic Society. On August 22, 1959, the publication day of her landmark book Psychiatry in the Medical Specialties,

Marcia Dunbar Soule, Dunbar’s daughter, referred to her mother as “a magnetic, charismatic woman with a disturbed and beautiful soul and an almost magical gift of insight and intuition.”

 It is difficult to put it any better, only to reflect that the passage of time may vindicate more of the views Dunbar held.

s clinical associate professor at the Graduate School of Medicine, University of Wollongong, Australia, and research fellow in the history department of Stellenbosch University, South Africa. He wrote about syphilis in the book 

The Exceptional Brain and How It Changed the World

, and is currently writing a biography of Helen Flanders Dunbar

1. Ozarin L. A psychiatric pioneer remembered. 

https://psychnews.psychiatryonline.org/doi/full/10.1176%2Fpn.41.5.0025

2. Kemp HV. Helen Flanders Dunbar (1902-1959). American Psychological Association Society for the Psychology of Women. 2010. Accessed February 16, 2021. 

https://www.apadivisions.org/division-35/about/heritage/helen-dunbar-biography

3. Powell RC. Emotionally, soulfully, spiritually ‘free to think and act’: the Helen Flanders Dunbar (1902–59) memorial lecture on psychosomatic medicine and pastoral care. 

5. Dunbar HF, Wolfe TP, Rioch JM. Psychiatric aspects of medical problems: the psychic component of the disease process (including convalescence), in cardiac, diabetic, and fracture patients. 

6. Dunbar HF, Wolfe TP, Tauber ES, Brush AL, Coffin M. The psychic component of the disease process (including convalescence), in cardiac, diabetic, and fracture patients. Part II. 

Articles

Widely recognized as the prime mover behind the psychosomatic medicine movement, Helen Flanders Dunbar, MD, PhD. was a clinician, writer, and founder of the American Psychosomatic Society.

A Pioneer of Psychosomatic Medicine

                                                                                                     - Series Editor Gregory Eghigian, PhD

Eighty years ago, a mute man with paranoid schizophrenia, exhibiting delusions, hallucinations, and mannerisms, was found wandering the streets of Naples. On April 21, 1938, on the first floor of Rome Royal University Clinic for Nervous and Mental Illnesses, he became the first individual to be given what became known as electroshock treatment (electroconvulsive therapy or ECT) with 

 A turning point in psychiatric treatment, the psychiatrist who performed the treatment was Ugo Cerletti, MD, assisted by Lucio Bini, MD.

Ugo Cerletti (1877-1963) trained in psychiatry and neurology at leading European centers before becoming head of the Institute for Neuropsychiatry in Rome in 1935.

During a lengthy career, Cerletti distinguished himself with research in many areas. He conducted neuropathological studies on perivascular corpuscles (now known as 

), general paresis, and had a special interest in goitres—cretinism was prevalent in some parts of Italy—which he was still studying in his 80s. A creative and questioning mind, his interests extended beyond medicine; for example, he introduced white uniforms for Alpine troops and designed an advanced artillery missile.

Ideas about using electricity on the nervous system go back to suggestions from the Greeks 2000 years ago. Cerletti was interested in the electrical provocation of seizures, which had already been used for 60 years. His electroshock machine, built by his associate Bini, was originally intended for research on epilepsy.

Giving live patients electric shocks could potentially stop their hearts, leading to death. Cerletti visited the Rome abattoirs and learned that the animals were first stunned by a current delivered across the temples, thus sparing the heart.

Of the biological therapies in the 1930s ECT was the most successful and lasting treatment. It had started with a serendipitous misconception that epilepsy and schizophrenia were mutually antagonistic. This led to the cardiazol therapy of Ladislas Meduna, MD, preceded by prefrontal leucotomy and 

 Some saw coma therapy as a progression from Julius Wagner-Jauregg, MD’s fever shock treatment for what was then called general paralysis of the insane. But cardiazol, although effective, had unpleasant side effects, including a terrible premonition of death before the seizure.

 Inducing the convulsion by electricity was cleaner, cheaper, and less cumbersome.

In his account of the first ECT treatment, Cerletti created a self-exalting myth. There were 3 failed attempts on the patient, each with a higher voltage, before getting a seizure. The hapless patient shouted “Another time is murderous ”before having his fit. It took a fortnight before Cerletti publicized his endeavor, suggesting some 

Cerletti believed that the therapeutic effect of ECT was produced by acroaginine (ECT in a bottle, according to Edward Shorter, MD) during the seizures and did extensive research on animals to isolate the substance, 

ECT was used to treat schizophrenia, but by the 1940s physicians realized that it was more effective for affective disorders, and the epilepsy/schizophrenia antagonism hypothesis was finally 

 Thus was born a new treatment in psychiatry that has saved countless lives despite the continuing stigma, myths, and 

Cerletti’s venture into electroshock was done when fascism was at its height. Italian psychiatry, although heavily influenced by German psychiatry, had its own character. From the start it regarded neurology as an equal partner with a strong focus on 

 It did not follow the German model of killing psychiatric patients, which presaged the horrors of the Holocaust.

 To his credit Cerletti did not support the fascist party, although it is reported that he read the literature.

It is ironic that the most life-saving treatment in psychiatry was discovered by someone who saw himself as primarily a neurologist—an indictment of the chasm that has grown between the 2 

Despite all of his successes, Cerletti, “the most renowned representative of Italian neuropsychiatry in the mid-twentieth century,” can be considered unlucky. Despite being twice nominated, he never won the Nobel Prize; it would have been 

 is Clinical Associate Professor at the Graduate School of Medicine, Wollongong University, Australia.

1. Cerletti U, Bini L. Electroshock *†. 

2. Rzesnitzek L. ‘A Berlin psychiatrist with an American passport’: Lothar Kalinowsky, electroconvulsive therapy and international exchange in the mid-twentieth century. 

Shock Therapy: A History of Electroconvulsive Treatment in Mental Illness

5. Berrios GE. The scientific origins of electroconvulsive therapy: a conceptual history. 

6. Burgese DF, Bassitt DP. Variation of plasma cortisol levels in patients with depression after treatment with bilateral electroconvulsive therapy. 

7. Babini VP. Looking back: Italian psychiatry from its origins to Law 180 of 1978. 

8. Piazzi A, Testa L, Del Missier G, et al. The history of Italian psychiatry during Fascism. 

9. Kotsaki K, Diamantis A, Magiorkinis E. Ugo Cerletti (1877-1963): an early Italian father of electroshock and a pioneer in many other ways. 

10. Sandrone S, Cambiaghi M. Ugo Cerletti (1877-1963). 

Against the backdrop of European fascism, an Italian physician pioneered a new treatment. 

The Man Who First Used ECT: Ugo Cerletti 

Helen Flanders Dunbar, MD, PhD, recognized as the originator of psychosomatic medicine, was a clinician, writer, founder of the 

 As if that were not enough, she spent her professional life promoting the role of clergy in medicine and exploring accident proneness. Her work was also essential to the development of consultation liaison psychiatry.

 Her father was a mathematician, engineer, and patent attorney; her mother a genealogist; and her brother Francis earned an masters degree in botany at Stanford University. She too received a remarkable education At Bryn Mawr and Columbia she majored in mathematics and psychology. She then went on to earn 4 advanced degrees in 7 years. She attended the Yale Medical School in medicine and obstetrics. She wrote a doctoral thesis on Dante at Columbia University, while graduating magna cum laude from nearby Union Theological Seminary.

Her Episcopalian faith was a guiding light in her life, and she believed it should inform her medical practice. She worked closely with Anton Boisen, a clergyman inpatient at Westboro Mental Hospital, who was convinced that religion and psychiatry needed to be connected on a professional level. Together they trained ministers to work in medical settings.

In 1929, Dunbar broadened her medical and spiritual horizons by traveling to Europe. She met leading psychiatric figures of the day and visited Lourdes, the world’s most famous healing shrine in France, which had a profound spiritual effect.

She legally changed her name to Flanders Dunbar in 1938.

 It seems astonishing today that an accomplished woman had to change her name in an attempt to overcome the prevailing misogyny.

From 1930 to 1942, Dunbar was the medical director of the Council for Clinical Training of Theological Students and director of the Joint Committee on Religion and Medicine. During this time, she earned the soubriquet of “mother of holistic medicine” with her 1935 publication of 

Emotions and Bodily Changes: A Survey of Literature on Psychosomatic Interrelationships: 1910-1933

. In 1939, she became the first editor of the journal 

American psychosomatic medicine started in the 1930s. According to this school of thought, illnesses arose from the physiological effects of emotional stimuli. It was thought that certain psychodynamic patterns created typical illnesses, known as 

 Repressed (and forgotten) emotions emerged from the unconscious to target certain organs, producing psychosomatic disorders. Somatic dysfunctions thus arose from the patients’ emotional problems, which led practitioners of psychosomatic medicine to search for psychological profiles characteristic of specific syndromes. This expanded further to the belief that many diseases were psychogenic in origin and stressors, albeit undefined. Dunbar believed that having accidents was similar to the process by which other patients transformed psychological conflicts into somatic symptoms.

 Their personality styles and neuroses translated into 

After 1939, Dunbar gave up academic commitments, drank heavily, alienated followers, and left the American Psychosomatic Society. On August 22, 1959, the publication day of her landmark book 

“A magnetic, charismatic woman with a disturbed and beautiful soul and an almost magical gift of insight and intuition,” said her daughter Marcia Dunbar Soule.

It is difficult to put it any better, only to reflect that the passage of time may vindicate the views Dunbar held.

The Exceptional Brain and How it Changed the World

. He is Clinical Associate Professor at the Graduate School of Medicine, Wollongong University and Research Fellow, History Department, Stellenbosch University, South Africa.

He is writing a biography of Helen Flanders Dunbar.

1. Ozarin L. A psychiatric pioneer remembered

. March 3, 2006. Accessed February 16, 2021.

2. Kemp HV. Biography of Helen Flanders Dunbar (1902-1959). 

4. Powell RC. Emotionally, soulfully, spiritually ‘free to think and act’: the Helen Flanders Dunbar (1902–59) memorial lecture on psychosomatic medicine and pastoral care. 

5. Marcia Dunbar-Soule Dobson. Quoted in Stokes GA Dunbar, Helen Flanders. In: Sicherman B, Green CH, eds. 

Notable American Women: The Modern Period

. Harvard University Press; 1980: 210-212.

The rise and fall of a brilliant medical pioneer. 

Helen Flanders Dunbar: The Mother of Psychosomatic Medicine

Robert Kaplan, MBChB, FRANZCP, MA, MPhil, discusses the pandemic and its effects on therapy. 

To read some of Dr Kaplan's articles, see 

The Revolutionary Royalist Demonstrates the Anatomical Cause of a Psychiatric Illness

Alois Maria Ott: I Was Hitler's Psychologist

 The Exceptional Brain and How it Changed the World

is Clinical Associate Professor at the Graduate School of Medicine, Wollongong University and Research Fellow, History Department, Stellenbosch University, South Africa.

Videos

Kids wander in, dogs jump up, and connection fails. 

Enclosed Spaces

Revolutionary Paris was the center of things in more ways than one. Dr Phillipe Pinel, a child of the Enlightenment, laid down principles of psychiatry that many still follow today. Pinel, followed by his epigone Dr Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol, believed that the root cause of mental illness lay in the environment. Patients therefore required “

,” based on the belief that individuals exhibiting mental illness could be carefully re-educated in the humane and orderly regime of a reformed asylum.

Paris, a city associated with hedonism, indulgence, creativity and apostasy, was the home of a new psychiatric illness: 

 (GPI). It was characterised by grandiose thinking, disorganized behaviour, emotional outbursts, and flights of wild fantasy culminating in collapse, rapid dementia, and paralysis. Patients were unable to care for themselves, dying mostly in lunatic asylums.

The Pinel school attributed GPI to environmental causes. But then one of the most original and unusual characters in the history of psychiatry arrived on the scene and challenged the environmental hypothesis. His name was Antoine Laurent Jessé Bayle. As a Royalist, he was swimming against the political currents of the day and a possible candidate for persecution. He had trained under 

, a proponent of the then-unfashionable anatomico-pathological view and inventor of the stethoscope.

Bayle went into psychiatry at the Royal Asylum for the Insane at Charenton in 1818. Up to one-third of the male patients had GPI, and it was clear that moral therapy was not going to provide a solution to their illness.

On November 21, 1822, Bayle presented his doctorate, describing 6 autopsy cases of GPI with gross thickening of the meninges and inflammation of the vasculature. GPI, he stated, was due to chronic meningo-vascular arachnoiditis. Its cause was anatomical, not environmental or moral. This extraordinary discovery was made by a young man at the level of what today would be regarded as internship. He was precociousness personified.

The significance of Bayle’s finding cannot be understated. It was the first description of “the visible and definable neuropathological cause of a psychiatric disease” and deserves to go down in history as the 

of the scientific roots of the discipline.

In 1825, Bayle pushed the envelope by claiming that all insanity was due to chronic meningeal inflammation. The response from his peers was critical, if not caustic. Dr

Étienne-Jean Georget (making sure he did not leave anything out) condemned Bayle of being shallow, impertinent, showing exaggerated pretension, immature, reaching impossible conclusions, and having a rash nature.

Undeterred, Bayle went on to write up 100 autopsy findings in 1826, warning that the moral school “could lead one astray by making one neglect the organic cause of diseases, by focusing too exclusively on derangements of function.”

At the age of 27 Bayle walked away from psychiatry to become an archivist and sank into obscurity.

If the environmentalists won the battle, it was a short-lived victory; the war was eventually lost—decisively. Bayle had correctly anticipated a paradigm shift. Within decades, the anatomico-pathological model ruled supreme. The center of psychiatric gravity accordingly moved to the Germanic world, and French psychiatry was never the same.

1. Kaplan RM. Syphilis, sex and psychiatry, 1789-1925: Part 1. 

In 18th-century France, physicians searched for the causes of mental illness and debated how best to treat it.

The Revolutionary Royalist Demonstrates the Anatomical Cause of a Psychiatric Illness 

The definitive history of Hitler is found in the superlative two volumes by Kershaw I. 

The best books on Hitler’s medical history are by Redlich F. 

Hitler: Diagnosis of a Destructive Prophet

. Oxford University Press; 1998; and, Eberle H, Neumann H. 

Two books describing Hitler’s encounter with Ott are Ross P. 

. Little, Brown and Company; 2016; and Simms B. 

Adolf Hitler, the genocidal monster of the twentieth century, would not seem to be someone likely to seek psychological counseling, let alone respond. Since his death at the end of the war, there has been a vast outpouring of literature on the Nazi Fuhrer. Until recently, he was not known to have had psychological treatment—with 

 This encounter was rumored to have occurred at Pasewalk Hospital at the end of World War I when he was hypnotized by psychiatrist Dr Edmund Forster. However, it has been firmly discounted by historians.

In 1990, however, there came a surprising revelation: Hitler had been treated by a psychologist at Landsberg Prison in 1924, with a positive response to treatment.

 Alois Maria Ott, the prison “teacher,” was responsible for the rehabilitation. Ott first disclosed his involvement with Hitler at the hearty age of 98, with reports that he was going to write a book on his experiences, which has not occurred. A devout Catholic, Ott was a firm believer in the power of goodwill, having a nonjudgemental approach to his patients.

In 1924, Hitler was just another Bavarian right-wing rabble-rouser spawned by the loss of the war and the chaos of the 

. Inspired by the 1920 Kapp putsch, he decided to mount a coup against the Bavarian government. What is known as the Munich Beer Hall Putsch culminated in a march on the Bavarian Defense Ministry on November 9, 1923.

 In the exchange of fire, 16 Nazis and four policemen were killed. Hitler was pulled down, dislocating his shoulder; Ludendorff, undeterred, marched on; Goering was shot in the thigh (which started his morphine addiction).

Hitler was devastated. He could be jailed, deported to Austria, or shot for treason. He managed to escape to the home of Ernst “Putzi” Hanfstaengl, his press spokesman. Overwrought, if not hysterical, he threatened to kill himself and Helene Hanfstaengl had to take the gun from him.

 This behavior was not unusual: Hitler frequently threatened suicide when events did not go his way.

On 11th November, Hitler was arrested and taken to Landsburg Prison, 38 miles west of Munich, arriving at night. Fearing a rescue attempt, the Reichswehr was brought in to guard the special prisoner. Hitler was put in Cell Seven in die Festung, a special wing reserved for prisoners of conscience, the nobility, and duellists (a very German arrangement). He was to stay there until December 20, 1924.

The records on arrival state that the prisoner was “of moderate strength,” 5 feet 9 inches tall, and weighed 12 stone one pound (measurements converted from metric). Medical officer Dr Josef Steiner Brin declared Hitler “healthy and strong,” fit for imprisonment. An interesting find at the examination was only learned in 2015: Hitler had “right-side cryptorchidism” or an undescended right testicle, thereby confirming the longstanding rumor.

,” was unshaven, miserable, and distracted. Rudolf Hess found him in a very low emotional state, expecting to be shot as a revolutionary (and which, of course, he was to do to so many who opposed him). When the investigators arrived, he demonstrated the histrionic behavior that was such a feature of his personality. He would either remain silent, “acted fresh, or broke out into crying fits.”

 His shouts and screams could be heard all over the building.

Leybold, the prison warden, had to deal with his rages. Hitler “howled like a madman” before raving about “liars and traitors.” His response was to go on a hunger strike; at least he would die like a martyr. As the hunger took hold, he became apathetic and looked “like a heap of misery, crestfallen, poorly shaved, and listening to my simple words with a tired little smile and no interest.” Moved to the hospital wing, he got steadily weaker and the staff decided that force-feeding was the only option. Before this came about, he was visited by Ott.

The prisoner made a disappointing impression. Hitler was a “scowl-eyed stocky man,” a “middle-class man with mannered black hair combed into his forehead and the well-known trimmed beard fly,” “a wide, ordinary mouth and a broadly protruding, somewhat indented nose.” Ott’s emphasis on physiognomy was derived from the focus on physical characteristics promoted by Lombroso and Kretchmer.

) with a report from a colleague accusing him of “falling victim to the devil of his own vanity and a prima donna complex.” Ott said, “Herr Hitler, I give you my word that I’ve told nobody in the prison that I was coming to see you, and nobody will learn anything of this conversation. You and I are about the same age and have both lived through war and misery. I’m coming to you man to man, to be of assistance, the same way I do with every inmate.” In this way he levelled out the differences between the two, despite the obvious inequities in a prison situation.

Hitler ignored the invitation. Convinced that he was going to be shot, he became more hysterical. “The people are a pack,” he cried. With “whitish-yellow flakes of foam on his mouth,” he intended to “wipe out his life on a hunger strike.” Distraught at the death of his comrades in the march, Hitler announced that “I have had enough, I am done, if I had a revolver I would take it.”

 Ott made his assessment of the prisoner: a hysteric and pathological psychopath. This is unique: the only psychiatric diagnosis of Hitler by anyone who examined him.

Not intimidated by his ranting patient, Ott was determined to take control of the encounter. First, he lectured Hitler on the need to be patient about establishing his political program, only to receive another melodramatic tirade that Germany could not wait for this before he would be crucified and burned at the stake. Ott found another way to engage his volatile subject, asking whether he had chosen the wrong role model in view of Austria’s recent history with the Hohenzollerns. This did the trick; the impasse was broken. Hitler, back on familiar territory, gave Ott a lengthy discourse on his interpretation of history and the two now had a basis for conversation. From this point, they would debate current and past issues.

“Then you must know,” said Ott, “how long it took the Prussian general staff to prepare for the last war, and that revolutionaries like Garibaldi and Mussolini need the will of the people behind them. Slogans, especially ideological ones like anti-Semitism and anti-clericalism, won’t bring starving people to the barricades. . . . Why do you and your followers spread hatred toward Jews and toward papal authority? We can be political opponents, but if you want to lead a whole nation into a better future, we need one another.”

This must be one of the very rare (if not unique) occasions when someone challenged Hitler’s fanatic and hate-filled views to his face. Despite contradicting Ott (as would be expected), Hitler stayed engaged, stating that only two institutions in the world required his respect “the old Prussian General Staff and the Roman College of Cardinals.”

Ott concluded by recommending a “pious recipe” to his patient: “Find back to the old order of God!” This must have registered with Hitler, who had been raised a Catholic—although he was deeply skeptical of the church as an adult. The intervention worked. The next day, Hitler stopped his 10-day hunger strike—the planned force feeding abandoned—and returned to his comfortable room in the fortress.

On this note ended the only known treatment of Hitler by a psychologist who used an approach that had allowed his difficult patient to engage with him, followed by contradiction of his fervid opinions. Ott was not deterred by his difficult patient, but used a combination of confrontation and empathy, providing opportunities to vent. The results were excellent; his patient settled, stopped the hunger strike and gave up suicidal ideation. He prepared for his trial and wrote 

The trial for high treason was held from February 26 to April 1, 1924 in the Bavarian People’s Court. Hitler, confident again, effectively took over the trial proceedings, addressing not only the judges, but the German public. This changed the hearing from a criminal prosecution to a stage to put his ideas before the German public, turning him into a national figure. That the judges were right-wingers helped—the two pro-Nazi lay judges wanted him acquitted. In the end he got a five-year sentence to be served under the least severe conditions, the sentence likely to be heavily curtailed. As it was, he would only serve 13 months.

Ott concluded that his patient had a “penchant for magical-mysterious thinking,” an opinion that is difficult to disagree with. Hitler was filled with “vanity and brutal dogmatism.” His hatred for “those who think differently” could not be attenuated: “I could feel his demonic obsession with an ideology that unleashed the psychopath in him.”

From the time of his assent to power, psychiatrists offered their views on Hitler’s mental state.

 Ott, however, was the only mental health professional to examine and treat the future German dictator; this encounter deserves to be known. In addition, he was able to challenge Hitler’s anti-Semitic views, which did not make any difference, but it is one of the few occasions (if ever) this occurred.

The news that Hitler was treated by a psychologist is intriguing. Many would consider him to be the least likely person to respond to psychotherapy. A number of reasons can be considered for the success of Ott’s intervention. Hitler was at an early stage of his political career, just one among many right-wing politicians in Bavaria, with no guarantee that he would succeed in his political goals. Second, the penalty he faced in the forthcoming trial could include lengthy imprisonment or deportation. Third, the rampant megalomania he displayed once he came to power was in its early stages—he was the drummer, not the leader of the forthcoming revolution. Fourth, the presentation was characterized by his suicidal threats, a persistent response when facing adversity until his end in the bunker.

Ott did the right thing for his patient; what it meant for the world is another thing. We can look back and wonder whether if there had been someone like Ott at other critical points in Hitler’s life history would have been different. If only . . . .

 is Clinical Associate Professor at the Graduate School of Medicine, Wollongong University and Research Fellow, History Department, Stellenbosch University, South Africa. He writes about political leaders in his book 

Dark Tales of Illness, Medicine and Madness: The King Who Strangled His Psychiatrist.

. Cambridge: Polity Press; 2012.
2. Armbruster J, Theiss-Abendroth P. Deconstructing the myth of Pasewalk: Why Adolf Hitler’s psychiatric treatment at the end of World War I bears no relevance. 

Bewährungsfrist für den Terroristen Adolf H. Der Hitler-Putsch und die bayerische Justiz

 (Munich, 1990; p 35); quoted in Simms B. 

. Penguin Books Ltd. Kindle Edition, September 2019; see also: Ross P. 

. New York, NY: Little, Brown and Company; 2016: 717-795.
4. Bavaria’s governor Eugen von Knilling to the envoy of neighboring Baden-Württemberg, in Plöckinger, Geschichte, 21. Quoted in Ross P. 

 (p717-95).
6. Jordans F. Newly published documents reveal that Hitler received special treatment in prison. 

. December 22, 2015.
7. Hitler really did have only one testicle, German researcher claims. 

. December 19, 2015.
8. Bavaria’s governor Eugen von Knilling to the envoy of neighboring Baden-Württemberg, in Plöckinger, Geschichte, 21. Quoted in Ross P. 

 (p304).
9. Gritschneder, Bewährungsfrist, citing comments made in 1988 by Ott, former Anstalts-Psychologe. Quoted in Kershaw I. 

. New York, NY: Penguin Books; 2001: 669.
10. Kaplan RM. Norwegian psychiatry and the trial of Vidkun Quisling. 

Adolf Hitler, the genocidal monster of the twentieth century, would not seem to be someone likely to seek psychological counseling, let alone respond. 